Introduction
In the aftermath of World War I, Germany was a nation in ruins. The fall of the monarchy and the devastation of war had left the country struggling to build a new social order. German philosophy, too, was in need of reform after the catastrophe. It was in this context that four brilliant philosophers emerged to reshape the world of ideas: Ernst Cassirer, Martin Heidegger, Walter Benjamin, and Ludwig Wittgenstein.
"Time of the Magicians" by Wolfram Eilenberger takes us on an intellectual journey through the 1920s, following these four exceptional thinkers as they grappled with life's big questions and turned the thinking of their time upside down. Their ideas and debates continue to resonate today, offering insights into the nature of humanity, the role of philosophy, and the search for meaning in a turbulent world.
The Davos Dispute: Heidegger vs. Cassirer
The 1920s were an age of extremes, characterized by rapid technological innovation and social upheaval. In Germany, the newly formed Weimar Republic struggled with economic hardship and political turmoil. It was against this backdrop that two intellectual giants, Martin Heidegger and Ernst Cassirer, met for a legendary philosophical showdown.
On March 26, 1929, the ballroom of the Belvédère Hotel in Davos, Switzerland, was packed with the who's who of contemporary philosophy. They had gathered to witness a public debate between the young, provocative Heidegger and the older, more established Cassirer. The two men couldn't have been more different in both style and substance.
Cassirer, a cosmopolitan professor from the University of Hamburg, represented the humanist tradition. He argued that humans were culture-forming beings who found answers to life's questions through morals and ethics. For Cassirer, the creation of artistic and cultural symbols allowed humans to transcend their mortality.
Heidegger, on the other hand, was the enfant terrible of philosophy. Tanned, sporty, and irreverent, he challenged the established norms of academic philosophy. Heidegger dismissed ethics and truth as man-made illusions, asserting that fear and death were the fundamental basis of human experience. He argued that humans must confront their metaphysical insignificance to become truly free.
The debate between Heidegger and Cassirer encapsulated the polarized mood of the 1920s. Their opposing views reflected the tension between tradition and radical change, between optimism and despair, that characterized the era. While they couldn't find common ground, their intellectual clash illuminated the profound questions facing a society in transition.
Martin Heidegger: Confronting the Storms of Life
Martin Heidegger believed he had an inner calling to philosophy, and his meteoric rise in academia seemed to confirm this conviction. Despite his humble background, Heidegger quickly made a name for himself with his radical approach to philosophical questions.
From his very first lecture at the age of 29, Heidegger challenged his students to confront the fundamental mystery of existence. He posed the seemingly simple question: "There is something. Why?" For Heidegger, the task of philosophy was to unravel this profound truth and expose humans to the "storms of life."
Heidegger's philosophy centered on the concept of authenticity. He believed that only by facing extreme experiences and confronting our own mortality could we live authentically. This meant accepting death as inevitable and final, and using this awareness to live life to the fullest.
Heidegger's ideas resonated strongly with the younger generation in Germany, who were eager to break free from traditional ways of thinking. His charismatic personality and eloquent speaking style made him an academic superstar, particularly after he secured professorships in Marburg and Freiburg.
In Freiburg, Heidegger was constantly surrounded by adoring students who hung on his every word. His magnum opus, "Being and Time," written in just eleven months, further cemented his reputation as a philosophical heavyweight.
Interestingly, Heidegger practiced what he preached to some extent. He often took breaks from writing to engage in physical activities like chopping wood, skiing, or hiking in the Black Forest. He also indulged in extramarital affairs, most notably with his student Hannah Arendt, who later became a renowned philosopher in her own right.
However, it's worth noting that Heidegger himself was largely spared from the kind of existential crises he described in his work. His academic success came relatively easily, allowing him to achieve his lifelong dream of fame and reputation without facing significant hardship.
Heidegger's philosophy challenged people to wake up to the reality of their existence and live authentically in the face of mortality. While his ideas were revolutionary and influential, they also raised questions about the relationship between philosophical ideals and lived experience.
Ernst Cassirer: The Humanist Philosopher of Diversity
In stark contrast to Heidegger's radical approach, Ernst Cassirer represented a more measured, humanist tradition in philosophy. Following in the footsteps of intellectual giants like Goethe and Kant, Cassirer was known for his composure and faith in human goodness.
An anecdote from January 1919 illustrates Cassirer's unflappable nature. While delivering a lecture at Berlin's Humboldt University, the power suddenly went out due to nearby street fighting. Unfazed, Cassirer simply continued his lecture in the dark, demonstrating his commitment to reason and civility even in turbulent times.
Cassirer's philosophy was grounded in a deep belief in human potential. Unlike many of his contemporaries, he didn't see humanity as fundamentally mysterious. Instead, he believed that humans revealed themselves through their actions and works. What set humans apart from animals, in Cassirer's view, was their ability to transform experiences into symbols.
For Cassirer, human understanding of the world was expressed through various symbolic forms, including art, science, and religion. He believed that all these forms of knowledge were equally valuable and that the role of philosophy was to reconcile these different ways of understanding the world.
This philosophy of human diversity and solidarity was reflected in Cassirer's personal life. He was known for his extensive education, amiable nature, and selflessness. For instance, he always read standing up during his daily streetcar rides to avoid taking a seat from someone who might need it more.
Cassirer found intellectual kinship in the private Hamburg library of scholar Aby Warburg. The library's unique organization, with books sorted by thematic relationship rather than alphabetically or chronologically, mirrored Cassirer's own thinking about the interconnectedness of cultural techniques. It was in this environment that Cassirer wrote his magnum opus, "The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms."
In 1929, Cassirer was elected the first Jewish director of the University of Hamburg, a significant achievement at the time. Even as he began to face increasing anti-Semitic hostility from National Socialists, Cassirer remained optimistic that humanism and education would ultimately triumph over discord.
Cassirer's unwavering faith in human progress and the power of culture stood in stark contrast to the pessimism that gripped many of his contemporaries in the wake of World War I. His philosophy offered a hopeful vision of human potential, even in the face of significant challenges.
Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Enigmatic Loner
Ludwig Wittgenstein's life and philosophy were marked by radical decisions and profound skepticism. Born into one of Europe's wealthiest families, Wittgenstein shocked his relatives upon returning from World War I by renouncing his inheritance and giving away all his belongings to his siblings.
This dramatic gesture was rooted in Wittgenstein's wartime experiences, which had deeply traumatized him and led him to question the value of academic philosophy. During his time in the trenches, he had begun writing a treatise that he believed would solve all the essential problems of philosophy once and for all. After completing this work, he intended to abandon philosophy and live a simple life.
The result of Wittgenstein's wartime ruminations was the "Tractatus Logico-philosophicus," a dense and enigmatic work that fascinated the academic world, even though few could claim to fully understand it. The book used a complex mathematical numbering system and contained cryptic statements that continue to challenge philosophers to this day.
At its core, the Tractatus aimed to demonstrate the futility of using thought to solve the mystery of human existence. Wittgenstein argued that the meaning of life reveals itself only in moments of mortal danger and cannot be decoded through abstract theory. His famous conclusion, "Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent," encapsulated his pragmatic approach to the limits of language and thought.
After completing the Tractatus, Wittgenstein followed through on his plan to leave academia, becoming a schoolteacher in a small Austrian village. However, his eccentric nature and urban background made it difficult for him to connect with the villagers, leaving him as isolated as ever. He once lamented to his sister that he felt separated from his fellow humans by a pane of glass.
This image of the pane of glass aptly describes Wittgenstein's philosophy as well. He believed that the human mind could never overcome its own hidden limitations, likening a human to a fly in a jar, unable to find its way out into the open. Despite his hope that the Tractatus would open people's eyes to these limitations, Wittgenstein ultimately doubted whether humans were capable of true knowledge at all.
Wittgenstein's journey from wealthy heir to ascetic philosopher and teacher reflects his deep skepticism about the power of reason and his search for authenticity. His work continues to challenge our assumptions about language, thought, and the limits of human understanding.
Walter Benjamin: The Bohemian Observer of the Zeitgeist
Walter Benjamin's life as a freelance intellectual in 1920s Germany bears a striking resemblance to the precarious existence of many millennial creatives today. Chronically broke and constantly on the verge of a nervous breakdown, Benjamin struggled to make ends meet while pursuing his philosophical and literary interests.
Despite coming from a wealthy, bourgeois family in Berlin, Benjamin received little financial support from his disapproving father. To support himself, he worked as a freelance journalist, but his poor money management skills meant that whatever he earned was quickly spent on Berlin's nightlife, Parisian brothels, or additions to his extensive private library.
Benjamin's approach to philosophy was unique and revolutionary. He believed that the path to truth lay not in abstract thinking or action, but in careful observation. For Benjamin, the act of contemplation created a dynamic exchange between the observer and the observed, leading to deeper understanding.
This philosophy of observation was particularly evident in Benjamin's approach to art. He argued that when we contemplate a work of art, both the viewer and the artwork are transformed. Our thoughts give meaning to the art, but in turn, the artwork becomes charged with our associations, stimulating our imagination with each new viewing. This constant exchange between thoughts and the observable world, Benjamin believed, was the key to attaining profound knowledge.
Benjamin's personal life also had a significant impact on his intellectual development. His relationship with Latvian actress and ardent communist Asja Lacis, whom he met on the Italian island of Capri, sparked a shift in his thinking. Under Lacis's influence, Benjamin evolved from a subtle observer of art into a nuanced critic of capitalism, turning his attention to the seemingly mundane phenomena of everyday life.
This ability to capture the essence of an era through the description of individual objects and phenomena became Benjamin's trademark. His unfinished work "Passages," which examined Paris's lavish new shopping arcades as an expression of modern materialism, is a prime example of this approach.
Unfortunately, Benjamin's idiosyncratic writing style, which often blurred the line between philosophy and art, made it difficult for him to establish himself in the academic world of his time. As a result, he lived a nomadic life as a professional bohemian, without a permanent residence or financial security.
Benjamin's life and work embody the spirit of the observant outsider, offering unique insights into the cultural and social dynamics of his time. His approach to philosophy as a form of poetic observation continues to inspire thinkers and artists today.
The Power of Language
Despite their many differences, Wittgenstein, Heidegger, Cassirer, and Benjamin all shared a fascination with language. For these thinkers, language was far more than just a means of communication – it was a fundamental tool through which humans shape and understand the world.
Ernst Cassirer viewed language as one of the crucial symbolic forms through which humans gain access to the world and themselves. He believed that language played a pivotal role in forming the essence of a human being, pointing to the moment when a child utters their first words as the birth of their spirit and personality. Cassirer's own mastery of multiple languages, including Sanskrit and Chinese, reflected his belief in the power of linguistic diversity.
For Walter Benjamin, language was both his livelihood and his passion. He had a deep love for French literature and often supported himself financially by translating Baudelaire's poems into German. Benjamin saw poetry as the truest expression of language because it attempted to capture the hidden essence of things in words. He believed that philosophers should aspire to use language with the same depth and creativity as poets.
Martin Heidegger, always in search of new ways to express his radical ideas, believed that new philosophical experiences required new forms of language. His lectures were filled with mystical jargon and neologisms like "presence-at-hand" and "worldhood." These linguistic innovations were all aimed at allowing humans to experience existence in entirely new ways.
Ludwig Wittgenstein, true to his skeptical nature, remained dubious about the possibilities of philosophical language. He saw language as fundamentally limited, capable only of describing the world of facts – a task he believed belonged to the natural sciences rather than philosophy. For Wittgenstein, attempting to speak about metaphysics or the meaning of life inevitably led one beyond the limits of what can be meaningfully said. He saw philosophy's role as exposing these limitations of language.
The focus on language among these philosophers reflected a broader shift in thinking about the relationship between philosophy and science. The Enlightenment had promoted a view of human reason as the ultimate solution to personal and social problems. However, the horrors of World War I had called this optimistic view into question. People began to doubt whether the human mind was always capable of making the best, most rational decisions.
This crisis of confidence in reason led to a reevaluation of philosophy's purpose. If pure rationality couldn't solve all human problems, what was the point of philosophical inquiry? The emphasis on language among these thinkers can be seen as an attempt to find new ways of understanding human experience and knowledge beyond traditional rational discourse.
By exploring the limits and possibilities of language, these philosophers were also probing the boundaries of human thought and experience. Their work continues to influence how we think about the relationship between language, thought, and reality today.
Philosophy and Science: A Complex Relationship
The relationship between philosophy and science was a central concern for all four thinkers, reflecting broader debates in the intellectual world of the 1920s. Recent scientific developments, such as Einstein's theory of relativity, Freudian psychoanalysis, and Darwin's theory of evolution, had begun to challenge traditional philosophical assumptions. Some even questioned whether these scientific advances had rendered philosophy obsolete.
Martin Heidegger, ever confident in his approach, was not intimidated by these scientific developments. In fact, he criticized what he saw as the purely theoretical approach to the world that characterized modern science. Heidegger believed that this scientific worldview trapped humans in a state of superficial self-avoidance, preventing them from accessing what he called "unadulterated Dasein" – authentic human existence.
Walter Benjamin, with his poetic sensibilities, also harbored deep reservations about natural science. He viewed scientific inquiry as an attempt to force knowledge through shortcuts, rather than allowing it to reveal itself naturally. For Benjamin, true knowledge came through patient observation and contemplation of the world. He saw the progress myth of natural science as silencing the voice of the world and alienating humans from their environment. Benjamin's vivid, descriptive sketches of everyday objects can be seen as a form of protest against what he perceived as the disenchantment of the world by science.
Ludwig Wittgenstein, characteristically skeptical of all grand claims, was critical of both philosophy and science. Despite having declared philosophy to be largely pointless in his Tractatus, he didn't place much faith in science either. When the logical positivists, a group of Viennese philosophers who sought to eliminate metaphysical speculation from philosophy, tried to recruit him as their intellectual leader, Wittgenstein politely declined. Instead, he turned his attention to architecture, designing a starkly minimalist house for his sister that many see as a physical embodiment of his philosophy – an austere, enigmatic structure that protects its inhabitants from the outside world.
Ernst Cassirer, ever the optimist, stood apart from his colleagues in his view of science. Unlike the others, he saw natural science as an opportunity for humans to overcome their limitations and expand their possibilities for self-creation. Cassirer pointed to scientific achievements like the invention of airplanes as evidence that science could make the seemingly impossible possible.
These varying attitudes toward science reflect the broader intellectual tensions of the time. The rapid pace of scientific progress had opened up new possibilities for understanding the world, but it had also raised challenging questions about the nature of knowledge and the role of philosophy in a scientifically advanced society.
The debate over the relationship between philosophy and science continues today, with ongoing discussions about the value of philosophical inquiry in an age of big data and artificial intelligence. The insights of Heidegger, Benjamin, Wittgenstein, and Cassirer continue to inform these contemporary debates, reminding us of the complex interplay between scientific knowledge and philosophical reflection.
Philosophical Perspectives on German Politics
As Germany grappled with the challenges of establishing the Weimar Republic in the aftermath of World War I, philosophers found themselves drawn into debates about the country's political future. Their responses to the political turmoil of the 1920s and early 1930s reveal much about their broader philosophical outlooks and their understanding of the relationship between ideas and social reality.
Ernst Cassirer, true to his humanist ideals, emerged as a staunch defender of democracy. In 1928, amid political instability and growing resentment towards the democratic system, Cassirer delivered a brave speech celebrating the anniversary of the Weimar Constitution. Drawing on the philosophical legacy of Immanuel Kant, Cassirer argued that even this most quintessentially German of philosophers would have supported a democratic republic. As a Jewish intellectual in a time of rising anti-Semitism, Cassirer's public stance as a constitutional patriot was particularly courageous. Sadly, his faith in German democracy would be shattered just five years later when the Nazi takeover forced him into exile.
Martin Heidegger's political views stood in stark contrast to Cassirer's democratic ideals. Heidegger was deeply skeptical of democracy, believing that a solidaric democratic community would interfere with an individual's quest for meaning and authentic existence. Instead, Heidegger advocated for radical isolation, often comparing the fully realized human being to his solitary hut in the Black Forest. Standing alone against the elements, Heidegger saw this isolation as the only way to truly confront the "unbridled grandeur of existence." While Heidegger's views might seem like harmless romantic musings, they took on a darker significance when he later joined the Nazi Party and became director of Freiburg University under Hitler's regime.
Walter Benjamin, influenced by his relationship with communist Asja Lacis, found himself drawn to left-wing politics. He flirted with the idea of joining the Communist Party, although his natural inclination towards observation rather than action kept him from fully committing to political activism. As a Jewish intellectual, Benjamin, like Cassirer, was forced to flee Germany when the Nazis came to power. He first went into exile in France, but was forced to flee again when German troops invaded. Tragically, fearing extradition to Nazi Germany, Benjamin took his own life in 1940.
Ludwig Wittgenstein, ever the outsider, largely abstained from engaging with day-to-day politics. His inherent skepticism about human nature led him to focus on abstract concepts like the mathematical notion of infinity rather than grappling with the political realities of his time. However, even Wittgenstein was eventually forced to confront the political upheavals of the era. When Hitler annexed Austria in 1938, Wittgenstein left his home country and returned to Cambridge to teach.
The diverse political stances of these four philosophers reflect the broader ideological conflicts of interwar Germany. From Cassirer's defense of democracy to Heidegger's flirtation with fascism, from Benjamin's leftist sympathies to Wittgenstein's political detachment, their responses to the political crises of their time were as varied as their philosophical ideas.
While these brilliant minds couldn't alter the course of history, their engagement (or lack thereof) with the political realities of their time offers valuable insights into the relationship between philosophy and politics. Their experiences raise enduring questions about the role of intellectuals in times of political crisis and the potential consequences of philosophical ideas when they intersect with real-world politics.
The Lasting Impact of the 1920s Philosophers
Although Heidegger, Cassirer, Wittgenstein, and Benjamin couldn't change the course of history, their ideas and debates continue to resonate today. These four philosophical geniuses of the 1920s recalibrated the compass of philosophy after the Enlightenment, setting new directions that still guide philosophical thought in the 21st century.
Ernst Cassirer's humanist philosophy, with its emphasis on cultural symbols and human diversity, continues to influence fields ranging from anthropology to media studies. His vision of humans as culture-creating beings who find meaning through various symbolic forms offers a hopeful perspective on human potential and the value of cultural diversity.
Martin Heidegger's existential philosophy, despite the controversy surrounding his political affiliations, remains a cornerstone of contemporary continental philosophy. His emphasis on authenticity and his critique of modern technology continue to provoke debate and inspire new philosophical inquiries. Heidegger's influence can be seen in fields as diverse as environmental philosophy, artificial intelligence ethics, and literary theory.
Walter Benjamin's unique approach to cultural criticism and his method of philosophical observation have had a lasting impact on fields like media studies, art history, and urban studies. His unfinished Arcades Project, with its innovative approach to understanding modernity through its material culture, continues to inspire scholars across disciplines.
Ludwig Wittgenstein's work on the limits of language and the nature of meaning has profoundly shaped analytic philosophy and linguistics. His ideas about language games and family resemblances continue to influence how we think about concepts and categories, while his later work has had significant impacts on fields like cognitive science and the philosophy of mind.
The intellectual battles fought by these thinkers in the 1920s continue to resonate with contemporary concerns. Cassirer's defense of humanism and cultural pluralism speaks to ongoing debates about multiculturalism and human rights. Heidegger's critique of technology and his emphasis on authentic existence find echoes in current discussions about the impact of digital technology on human life. Benjamin's observations on the commodification of culture seem prescient in our age of social media and global capitalism. Wittgenstein's insights into the limits of language continue to inform debates about artificial intelligence and the nature of consciousness.
Moreover, the personal and intellectual journeys of these four thinkers offer valuable lessons about the relationship between philosophy and lived experience. Cassirer's unwavering optimism in the face of rising fascism, Heidegger's complex entanglement with Nazi ideology, Benjamin's precarious existence as a freelance intellectual, and Wittgenstein's restless search for meaning all remind us that philosophical ideas are not developed in a vacuum, but are deeply intertwined with the personal and historical circumstances of their creators.
As we grapple with the complexities of the 21st century – from climate change and technological disruption to political polarization and economic inequality – the ideas of these 1920s philosophers continue to offer valuable perspectives. Their work reminds us of the power of philosophical thinking to illuminate the human condition and to challenge us to think deeply about our place in the world.
Final Thoughts
"Time of the Magicians" offers a fascinating glimpse into a pivotal moment in the history of philosophy. Through the lives and ideas of Cassirer, Heidegger, Benjamin, and Wittgenstein, we see how the trauma of World War I and the turbulent political and social climate of 1920s Germany gave birth to new ways of thinking about human existence, language, culture, and knowledge.
These four thinkers, each brilliant and idiosyncratic in their own way, grappled with the fundamental questions of philosophy in a time of crisis. Their diverse approaches – from Cassirer's humanist optimism to Heidegger's existential angst, from Benjamin's poetic observations to Wittgenstein's logical rigor – reflect the rich intellectual ferment of the era.
While their philosophical battles may seem abstract, their ideas continue to shape how we understand ourselves and our world today. They challenged the certainties of the Enlightenment and paved the way for new forms of philosophical inquiry that remain relevant in our own uncertain times.
As we face our own global challenges in the 21st century, the work of these "magicians" of philosophy reminds us of the enduring power of ideas to help us make sense of our existence and our place in the world. Their legacy invites us to continue asking the big questions, to challenge our assumptions, and to seek new ways of understanding the human experience.
In the end, "Time of the Magicians" is not just a history of philosophy, but a testament to the human spirit's capacity for creativity and insight even in the darkest of times. It encourages us to engage with the world around us with the same curiosity, rigor, and passion that drove these four remarkable thinkers nearly a century ago.