Vanguard Summary

Who counted as a citizen when America first declared its ideals of liberty and equality? For Black women, the answer was clear — they had to fight to be seen, heard, and included in the story of democracy.

1. Women Found a Voice through Abolitionism

The abolitionist movement became a natural platform for American women to challenge societal norms and assert their own rights. The core ideals of liberty and equality, central to abolitionism, resonated deeply with women who were themselves marginalized and disenfranchised. Articles and newspapers advocating abolition often emphasized the sexual exploitation of enslaved women and the destruction of family bonds, invoking a powerful moral argument.

For many white middle-class women, these stories hit close to home, highlighting parallels between their own lack of political rights and the oppression of enslaved people. These women, often excluded from public life, identified with the cause and joined the fight, seeing abolition as a path to their own liberation. They became active campaigners, creating a powerful alliance based on shared grievances.

However, these alliances weren’t built on total equality. While women eagerly participated in abolitionist activities, the movement's leadership remained largely dominated by men. Still, this period highlighted the untapped political will and resourcefulness of women.

Examples

• Newspapers depicted the sexual abuse of enslaved women to appeal directly to female readers.
• Women recognized parallels in their own “slavery of sex” under restrictive marriage and property laws.
• Many white women joined the abolitionist fight, seeing it as a means to challenge their own societal constraints.

2. Black Women’s Leadership was Dismissed Despite Their Contributions

Despite contributing significantly to the abolitionist cause, Black women often found themselves pushed aside when it came to leadership roles. Hester Lane, a freedwoman, exemplifies this. She used her skill and resources to fund the American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS) and protect fugitive slaves, yet she faced discrimination within abolitionist circles.

The debate over whether women were “persons” under the AASS Constitution highlighted the broader issue of marginalization. Although women eventually won the right to hold official positions, Lane’s nomination was rejected while white female candidates were accepted. Her exclusion demonstrates how racism within the abolitionist movement hindered true equality.

This struggle reveals that while the movement sought to address slavery, it often perpetuated marginalization through its internal biases. Black women had to work twice as hard to break systemic barriers.

Examples

• Hester Lane financially supported anti-slavery organizations and helped buy the freedom of enslaved people.
• The AASS denied Lane a leadership role while electing four white female candidates.
• Charles Ray, a board member, condemned the racism that prevented Lane’s election.

3. Black Women Carved Independent Paths to Equality

Unable to find acceptance in male- or white-dominated spaces, many Black women created organizations and took direct action to secure their own rights. Philanthropist and teacher Maria Miller Stewart argued that women's equality was critical for combating racism. Jarena Lee, a deeply religious woman, pursued her calling by becoming the first licensed female preacher in the United States despite church resistance.

In cities across the North, Black women formed literacy groups, anti-slavery societies, and self-help organizations. These institutions allowed them to support each other in the fight against inequality. Educator Sarah Mapps Douglass also pioneered efforts to give Black women a voice, forming one of the first Black women’s literary societies.

Their grassroots work helped empower Black communities and created networks that amplified their political and social influence.

Examples

• Maria Miller Stewart delivered speeches stressing the need for Black women to rise against oppression.
• Jarena Lee walked miles to preach sermons to largely skeptical audiences.
• Sarah Mapps Douglass inspired women to set up local anti-slavery and discussion groups.

4. Slavery and Women’s Oppression were Interconnected

Cases like that of Celia, an enslaved woman in Missouri who killed her rapist, highlighted the shared oppression of race and gender. At the trial, Celia’s lawyers argued she acted in self-defense, but the court dismissed this, citing her status as property. This reinforced enslaved women’s lack of autonomy and demonstrated how systemic racism and sexism reinforced each other.

Activist Sojourner Truth used her own story of enslavement to educate others. Her speeches juxtaposed the ideals of freedom and equality with the lived experiences of Black women, underscoring that true equality remained unattainable without addressing both slavery and gender oppression.

This dual fight became the foundation for understanding that neither abolition nor gender equality could succeed without addressing both simultaneously.

Examples

• Celia was denied self-defense protections because she was enslaved.
• Sojourner Truth’s speeches redefined freedom as something broader than legal emancipation alone.
• Truth’s personal hardships resonated across abolitionist and women’s suffrage audiences.

5. The Civil War was Both a Turning Point and a Missed Opportunity

The Civil War brought significant changes, including the legal abolition of slavery. Through amendments like the Thirteenth and Fifteenth, millions of African Americans were promised a voice in their governance. However, this also marked the beginning of a new oppressive system – Jim Crow laws.

Black women like Sojourner Truth worked vigorously to recruit soldiers, fund supplies, and advocate for emancipation throughout the war. However, post-war Reconstruction disproportionately prioritized Black men, often sidelining women’s roles in achieving freedom.

By 1877, voter suppression, poll taxes, and intimidation had reversed much of the progress made, leaving Black communities once again struggling for parity.

Examples

• Enslaved people fled to join Union lines and contribute to the war effort.
• The Fifteenth Amendment was passed but failed to prevent voter suppression.
• Jim Crow laws institutionalized discrimination after Reconstruction faltered.

6. Black Women Refused to Compromise on Universal Suffrage

Leaders like Mary Church Terrell were determined advocates for the voting rights of all Americans despite opposition from established suffrage leaders. Terrell rejected the compromises made by white suffragist organizations that aligned with racist ideologies to garner support.

Meanwhile, many Black men resisted women’s suffrage, fearing competition in the limited political sphere. Organizations such as the NACW (National Association of Colored Women), founded by Terrell, fought for a biracial democracy that respected everyone’s rights.

Despite opposition on every side, Terrell’s unyielding resolve laid the groundwork for progress in both racial and gender equality.

Examples

• The National American Women Suffrage Association placated racist factions for support.
• Mary Church Terrell founded the NACW to promote universal suffrage.
• Terrell openly criticized discrimination from both white suffragists and Black male leaders.

7. Black Women Targeted Structural Disenfranchisement Post-Suffrage

Following the success of the Nineteenth Amendment, Mary McLeod Bethune worked to counter political suppression in the South. As an educator and activist, she empowered Black women to register to vote, teaching them how to circumvent localized suppression tactics.

Organizations still faced systemic challenges despite these efforts. In Florida, for example, the Klan intimidated Black voters and activists. Nevertheless, Bethune’s initiatives started conversations about holding the South accountable to federal law.

Bethune’s leadership spearheaded a new phase of civil rights activism anchored in grassroots community work.

Examples

• Bethune transformed her Daytona school into a political training hub.
• Her students defied Klan intimidation by singing hymns during protests.
• NACW chapters across the South supported voting rights education programs.

8. Gaining Influence in Washington Changed the Movement

Bethune led efforts to turn the civil rights movement into a powerful lobbying entity in Washington. Her relationship with Eleanor Roosevelt provided her a direct avenue to the White House. Through the Federal Council of Negro Affairs, Bethune helped shape policies addressing racial injustice.

Among her successes were appointments of Black women to influential positions during President Roosevelt’s tenure. These accomplishments paved the future by showing how federal policymaking could be influenced by civil rights leaders.

This strategic turn laid the groundwork for monumental legislation in the mid-twentieth century.

Examples

• Eleanor Roosevelt and Bethune publicly opposed segregation.
• Bethune pressured FDR’s administration to appoint Black women like Jane Bolin to decision-making roles.
• This partnership ignited legislative changes years later, including the 1965 Voting Rights Act.

9. The Fight for Biracial Democracy Endured for Over Two Centuries

The civil rights struggle would eventually dismantle oppressive systems like Jim Crow, but progress required relentless activism across generations. From Sara Douglass to Mary Bethune to icons yet to emerge, Black women shaped each stage of action.

The 1965 Voting Rights Act was a culmination of efforts by activists who marched toward a democracy where race or gender no longer barred participation. Though battles remain, their work has permanently altered America's democratic fabric.

Examples

• The Voting Rights Act aimed to eradicate racial suppression at the polls.
• Black women led efforts to desegregate education and public sectors.
• Generations of leaders inspired modern activism touching on intersectional rights.

Takeaways

1. Advocate for equality by building coalitions but also creating autonomous spaces that meet unique needs.
2. Empower individuals through education and community training programs designed to equip leaders.
3. Take the fight to systemic levels by influencing policies and holding governmental powers accountable to democratic ideals.