Introduction
The American Revolution was a pivotal moment in history, marked by two crucial documents: the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the American Constitution in 1788. These documents proclaimed the equality of all citizens and their inalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. However, a critical question remained: Who exactly counted as a citizen?
For many, the answer was clear-cut: only white men would have the right to shape the future of this new political community. But from the very beginning, African Americans and women challenged this exclusionary status quo. At the forefront of this struggle were Black women, who became the vanguard in the fight for equality and justice.
In "Vanguard," Martha S. Jones takes us on a journey through the remarkable lives and contributions of these women. We'll explore their tireless efforts to abolish slavery, end the disenfranchisement of women, and create a truly biracial democracy that lived up to the ideals of the American Revolution.
This book sheds light on a often-overlooked aspect of the civil rights movement, revealing the crucial role Black women played in shaping the course of American history. Through their lobbying, litigation, and organization, these women fought not only for their own rights but for the rights of all Americans.
As we delve into the stories of these extraordinary women, we'll gain a new perspective on the civil rights movement and the long struggle for equality in America. We'll see how the fight against slavery intertwined with the fight for women's rights, and how Black women navigated the complex intersections of race and gender in their quest for justice.
The Abolitionist Movement and Women's Emancipation
The American Revolution was more than just a fight for independence from British rule. As the war drew to a close, Americans began to apply revolutionary ideas about equality to another pressing issue: slavery. While opposition to slavery wasn't new, the 1830s saw a shift towards more radical demands. Abolitionists now pushed for the immediate and total abolition of slavery everywhere, not just gradual change or reform.
This abolitionist movement found a powerful ally in women seeking their own emancipation. Abolitionist newspapers, recognizing women as likely sympathizers, targeted them with articles highlighting the sexual exploitation of enslaved women and the cruel separation of slave families. These tactics resonated deeply with many women, who drew parallels between their own experiences and those of enslaved people.
Many white middle-class women saw similarities between their own lack of rights and the plight of enslaved Americans. Unable to own property, bound by unfair marriage laws, and denied political rights, these women viewed both their situation and slavery as forms of bondage that needed to be abolished. This realization led to their increasing involvement in the abolitionist movement.
However, the involvement of women in the abolitionist cause wasn't without controversy. In 1839, the American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS) debated whether the word "person" in their constitution included women. This wasn't just a semantic argument – it determined whether women could hold office and have equal rights within the organization. After much debate, women were finally recognized as "persons" with the same rights as men in 1840.
Yet, even as white women gained ground within the abolitionist movement, Black women faced additional barriers. The case of Hester Lane, a successful Black entrepreneur and dedicated abolitionist, illustrates this point. Despite her significant contributions to the cause, Lane was the only woman not elected to the AASS executive board when five women were nominated. This incident highlighted the intersection of racism and sexism that Black women had to navigate, even within progressive movements.
Black Women Charting Their Own Path
Faced with exclusion and discrimination, Black women began to forge their own paths towards equality. They recognized that the liberation of Black women was not just about individual advancement, but a political necessity in the fight against racism.
Maria Miller Stewart, an orphan who had been "bound out" to a family for 15 years, posed a powerful question in 1830: "How long shall the fair daughters of Africa be compelled to bury their minds and talents beneath a load of iron pots and kettles?" Stewart argued that if racism were to be defeated, Black America needed to harness every talent at its disposal, which required equality between men and women.
Jarena Lee, born in the 1780s in New Jersey, exemplified this spirit of determination. Despite facing opposition from church elders who doubted women's ability to preach, Lee became a trailblazing itinerant preacher. She traveled thousands of miles on foot, delivering hundreds of sermons each year to both Black and white audiences. Her persistence paid off when she became the first woman in the United States to receive an official license to preach.
Sarah Mapps Douglass, born in 1806 in Philadelphia, was another pioneer. She founded the first Black women's literary society and some of the earliest women's anti-slavery societies. Douglass's work provided a blueprint for Black women struggling against both racism and sexism, inspiring similar efforts across the country.
These women, and many others like them, demonstrated that Black women would not wait for others to grant them equality – they would claim it for themselves. By creating their own structures and organizations, they carved out spaces where they could exercise leadership and pursue their goals, even when excluded from mainstream abolitionist and women's rights movements.
The Intertwined Struggle Against Slavery and Sexism
The case of Celia, a 19-year-old enslaved woman in Missouri, starkly illustrated the intersection of racism and sexism in the lives of Black women. In 1855, Celia killed her owner, Robert Newsom, after enduring five years of sexual assault. When brought to trial, her lawyers argued that she had acted in self-defense, a right protected under Missouri law for women facing sexual assault.
However, the judge ruled that as an enslaved person, Celia was not legally a "woman" but property, and therefore had no right to self-defense. This brutal decision highlighted how the oppression of Black women was doubly reinforced by both racist and sexist laws and attitudes.
It was in this context that Sojourner Truth emerged as a powerful voice linking the abolition of slavery with women's emancipation. Born into slavery in the 1790s, Truth fled bondage in 1827, making the heart-wrenching decision to leave her children behind. After experiencing a religious awakening, she dedicated her life to wandering America in search of moral and political truths, adopting the name Sojourner Truth.
Truth was an unforgettable presence, standing six feet tall and speaking extemporaneously due to her inability to read or write. Her speeches were a unique blend of lofty revolutionary rhetoric and blunt, visceral reminders of her experiences as a Black woman. She refused to let the women's rights movement forget that as long as Black women could be denied justice like Celia or forced to choose between freedom and family like herself, no woman in the United States could be truly free.
Through her powerful oratory and unwavering commitment to both racial and gender equality, Truth embodied the idea that abolishing slavery and emancipating women were two sides of the same coin. She forced her audiences to confront the reality that the struggle for women's rights could not be separated from the fight against racial oppression.
The Civil War and Its Aftermath
The Civil War marked a turning point in the struggle for equality. As the conflict between the abolitionist Union and the pro-slavery Confederacy raged, Black Americans rallied to the Unionist cause. Free men fought in Union armies, while free women like Sojourner Truth ran recruitment campaigns and raised funds. In the South, enslaved African Americans seized the opportunity to claim their freedom, fleeing to Union lines in large numbers.
The end of the war in 1865 brought about radical changes. The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery, the Fourteenth Amendment granted citizenship to formerly enslaved people, and the Fifteenth Amendment prohibited states from denying voting rights based on race. This period, known as Reconstruction, saw Black men enter American politics for the first time, with over 2,000 Black officials elected to various government positions.
However, this progress was short-lived. By 1877, Southern lawmakers began eroding Black men's voting rights through various means, including literacy tests, poll taxes, and "grandfather clauses" that effectively circumvented the Fifteenth Amendment. Violence, intimidation, and voter suppression kept Black men away from the polls. While slavery had been abolished, a new regime of legalized discrimination and segregation, known as Jim Crow, emerged in its place.
This setback opened a new front in the struggle for a biracial democracy. Black women, who had been at the forefront of the abolitionist movement, now found themselves facing both racial and gender-based discrimination. They would continue to play a crucial role in the ongoing fight for equality, as the struggle shifted from abolition to securing and protecting the rights supposedly guaranteed by the Constitution.
Black Women's Continued Fight for Universal Suffrage
As the 19th century drew to a close, Black women found themselves navigating a complex political landscape. The women's suffrage movement, largely led by white women, often sidelined or excluded Black women. At the same time, some Black organizations opposed voting rights for Black women, either out of fear of backlash or due to misogynistic beliefs about women's role in public life.
In this context, Mary Church Terrell emerged as a formidable leader. Born to formerly enslaved parents in Tennessee, Terrell was the first Black woman to earn a college degree. She used her intellectual prowess and political acumen to push for anti-lynching legislation and advocate for a truly biracial democracy.
Recognizing the need for an organization that would prioritize the interests of Black women, Terrell founded the National Association of Colored Women (NACW). Unlike other groups that focused solely on either racial or gender equality, the NACW sought to advance the rights of all Americans, regardless of race or gender.
Terrell and the NACW stood firm in their commitment to universal voting rights, even as other groups compromised. They were wary of white suffragists who sometimes aligned with white supremacist ideals, suggesting that giving white women the vote would help secure a white majority at the polls. Terrell was equally critical of Black male-led organizations that opposed women's suffrage, pointing out the absurdity of one disenfranchised group working to prevent another from obtaining rights.
The fight for universal suffrage faced a significant challenge in 1913 when Mississippi's senator-elect, James Vardaman, proposed a "compromise" that would grant women the right to vote while repealing the Fifteenth Amendment. This proposal, which would have effectively disenfranchised Black voters, was fortunately defeated. However, it served as a stark reminder that expanding voting rights wouldn't necessarily secure the advancement of Black Americans.
When women finally won the right to vote in 1920 with the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, it became clear that the struggle was far from over. In the Jim Crow South, Black women faced the same restrictive local laws and violence that had previously disenfranchised Black men. The NACW, under leaders like Mary McLeod Bethune, led the fight against this new round of disenfranchisement.
Bethune, born in South Carolina in 1875, dedicated her life to education and political activism. She founded the Daytona Educational and Industrial Training School for Negro Girls, which became a center for her political work. Bethune organized seminars to teach Black women how to register to vote and trained activists to ensure polling stations allowed Black women to cast their ballots. Even in the face of intimidation from groups like the Ku Klux Klan, Bethune remained defiant.
However, by 1922, the intimidation tactics of white supremacist groups were having their intended effect in states like Florida, once again suppressing the Black vote. It became clear that a new strategy was needed to break the cycle of disenfranchisement. The next phase of the struggle would take Black women leaders like Bethune to the corridors of power in Washington, D.C.
Breaking New Ground in Washington
The persistent challenge of racist local laws and white supremacist violence had effectively stymied grassroots civil rights movements, particularly in the Jim Crow South. Black Americans found themselves trapped in a catch-22 situation: they couldn't control local government without the ability to vote, and they couldn't enforce federal voting rights laws without control of local government.
Mary McLeod Bethune and her fellow activists recognized the need for a new approach. In 1935, Bethune founded the National Council of Negro Women, an organization that would serve as a vehicle for leveraging influence in the nation's capital. This marked a significant shift in strategy for the civil rights movement, focusing on gaining influence at the federal level to effect change that couldn't be achieved locally.
Bethune's reputation as an educator and campaigner had already caught the attention of influential figures in Washington, including First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt. The two women met at a conference in 1938, where Eleanor deliberately chose to be seated next to Bethune – a symbolic act of defiance against segregation.
With Eleanor's encouragement, President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Bethune to the Federal Council of Negro Affairs, an advisory group of African American intellectuals and activists. Bethune used this position to push back against Jim Crow laws and promote an unprecedented number of Black women to positions of influence. Her efforts contributed to the appointments of trailblazers like Jane Bolin, the first Black judge in the United States, and Crystal Bird Fauset, who was appointed to the Office of Civilian Defense.
Bethune and her colleagues in the Council of Negro Affairs broke new ground in several ways. They established a new center of power for the civil rights movement within the federal government, creating opportunities for direct influence on policy. Additionally, they played a crucial role in pushing the Democratic Party towards stronger support for civil rights.
While it would take another two and a half decades for this work to be fully realized in legislation, the movement had gained significant momentum. The breakthrough came in 1965 with the passage of the Voting Rights Act, which ensured that no one could be prevented from voting based on race, color, religion, or sex. This act was the culmination of a legislative agenda that had already desegregated the military, government, education, and public life.
The passage of the Voting Rights Act marked a decisive victory over the Jim Crow system. America was finally on the path toward the biracial democracy that African Americans had been fighting for over two centuries. This achievement was the result of generations of struggle, with Black women consistently at the forefront, pushing for universal rights even when others were willing to compromise.
The Legacy of Black Women's Activism
The story of Black women's activism in the fight for civil rights and equality is one of persistence, courage, and strategic innovation. From the early days of the abolitionist movement to the corridors of power in Washington, D.C., Black women consistently pushed for a more inclusive and just society, often in the face of both racial and gender-based discrimination.
These women understood that their struggle was not just about securing rights for themselves, but about realizing the promise of American democracy for all. They recognized the interconnected nature of different forms of oppression and insisted on a holistic approach to civil rights that addressed both racial and gender inequality.
The legacy of women like Sojourner Truth, Mary Church Terrell, and Mary McLeod Bethune can be seen in the civil rights victories of the 20th century and continues to inspire activists today. Their work laid the foundation for future movements and demonstrated the power of persistence and strategic thinking in the face of seemingly insurmountable obstacles.
Moreover, the story of these women highlights the importance of intersectionality in understanding and addressing social injustice. They showed that the experiences and needs of Black women could not be fully addressed by movements focused solely on either racial or gender equality. Instead, they created their own spaces and organizations to advocate for their unique concerns and perspectives.
The journey of Black women from enslaved people to political leaders and influencers is a testament to their resilience and determination. It also serves as a reminder of the long arc of the struggle for civil rights and the ongoing nature of the fight for equality. While significant progress has been made, many of the issues these women fought against – voter suppression, racial discrimination, and gender inequality – continue to be relevant today.
Conclusion
"Vanguard" by Martha S. Jones offers a crucial reframing of the civil rights movement, placing Black women at the center of the narrative. Through the stories of remarkable women who challenged the status quo, fought for their rights, and insisted on equality for all, we gain a more comprehensive understanding of the long struggle for justice in America.
The book illuminates how Black women, often marginalized in both racial and gender-based movements, forged their own path and created their own organizations to fight for their rights. From the abolitionist movement to the corridors of power in Washington, these women consistently pushed for a more inclusive and just society.
Their story is one of incredible perseverance in the face of dual oppression. Despite being denied basic rights, facing violence and intimidation, and often being sidelined by their supposed allies, Black women never gave up on the ideals of equality and justice promised by the American Revolution.
The legacy of these women continues to resonate today. Their insistence on universal rights, their strategic innovations, and their understanding of the interconnected nature of different forms of oppression laid the groundwork for modern civil rights and feminist movements.
As we reflect on this history, we are reminded that the struggle for equality is ongoing. The issues these women fought against – voter suppression, racial discrimination, and gender inequality – continue to be relevant in contemporary society. Their stories serve as both an inspiration and a call to action, reminding us of the power of persistence, courage, and collective action in the face of injustice.
"Vanguard" not only fills a crucial gap in our understanding of American history but also provides valuable lessons for current and future generations of activists and citizens. It underscores the importance of inclusive movements that address multiple forms of oppression simultaneously. It also highlights the need for persistence and strategic thinking in the long-term struggle for social change.
Ultimately, the book leaves us with a deeper appreciation for the contributions of Black women to American democracy and a renewed commitment to the ongoing fight for equality and justice for all. It challenges us to recognize and amplify the voices of those who have been historically marginalized, and to continue the work of building a truly inclusive and equitable society.
As we face contemporary challenges to democracy and civil rights, the stories of these pioneering women serve as a powerful reminder of what can be achieved through dedication, courage, and an unwavering commitment to justice. Their legacy lives on in every person who continues to fight for a more just and equitable world.