Introduction
In today's world, the idea of women in positions of power often faces resistance and criticism. Terms like "shrill," "bossy," and "selfish" are frequently used to describe female leaders, reflecting a persistent bias against women in leadership roles. The 2016 U.S. presidential election, where Hillary Clinton faced significant opposition, served as a stark reminder of the challenges women still face when seeking high-level positions of authority.
However, thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt, a society we might consider less progressive than our own, women were repeatedly called upon to lead the country. From the very first ruling dynasty to the last, royal women stepped forward to claim the throne and guide their nation through times of crisis and uncertainty. This raises an intriguing question: How could women gain and maintain such significant power in a deeply patriarchal, ancient society?
In her book "When Women Ruled the World," Egyptologist Kara Cooney delves into this fascinating aspect of ancient Egyptian history. Using the latest archaeological evidence, Cooney traces the stories of six remarkable women who rose to power in Egypt: Merneith, Neferusobek, Hatshepsut, Nefertiti, Tawosret, and Cleopatra. Through their experiences, we gain insight into the unique mechanisms of power in ancient Egypt and the value of female leadership during times of crisis.
This book offers a deep dive into ancient history, exploring how these female trailblazers kept their country prosperous and safe, often in the face of significant challenges. By examining their lives, losses, and successes, we can draw valuable lessons about leadership and gender dynamics that remain relevant in our modern world.
The Divine Kingship of Ancient Egypt
To understand how women could rule in ancient Egypt, we must first grasp the unique system of power that governed the nation: divine kingship. This system was established around 3000 BC when northern Egypt defeated the south after centuries of conflict, leading to the formation of the Egyptian nation-state.
Egypt's geographical position, protected by deserts and seas, along with its rich mineral resources and the life-giving Nile River, contributed to its becoming one of the most prosperous nations in the ancient world. This wealth may have been a key factor in Egypt's relative political stability throughout the millennia.
The tradition of divine kingship was founded with Dynasty 1, the first of 20 royal dynasties that would rule Egypt. In this system, the king was viewed as a divine representative with absolute authority. This belief was deeply rooted in Egyptian mythology, particularly the story of the god Osiris, who passed his title to his son Horus.
However, it's important to note that ancient Egypt's regency system was fundamentally patriarchal and authoritarian. Power was intended to transfer from father to son indefinitely, and female rule was generally considered an exception rather than the norm.
Yet, Egyptian mythology also provided a powerful representation of the divine feminine in the form of Isis, wife and sister of Osiris. Depicted in texts inscribed on pyramid walls, Isis embodied various roles: queen, mother, lover, daughter, and nurturer. The titles of royal women, such as Great Royal Wife or King's Mother, were modeled after these female archetypes. Their primary duty was to protect the kingship and ensure the continuation of the royal lineage.
To maximize the chances of producing male heirs, Egyptian kings practiced polygamy, maintaining multiple wives. Despite this practice, Egypt faced numerous succession crises throughout its history. Each time a royal family line ended, a new dynasty would arise.
It was often during these uncertain periods at the end of a dynasty that women stepped up to take power. Many women also wielded influence behind the scenes, making their achievements even harder to trace. When a king was crowned too young to rule effectively, his mother would often act as regent – a role first taken on by Egypt's earliest known female leader, Queen Merneith.
While these female rulers often had short reigns and served as strategic peacekeepers, some accomplished as much as their male counterparts. Unfortunately, their names and achievements have often been erased or forgotten over time, leaving gaps in our understanding of their contributions to Egyptian history.
Queen Merneith: The First Female Ruler
The story of Queen Merneith, Egypt's first known female ruler, provides a fascinating glimpse into how women could ascend to power in ancient Egypt. Merneith's reign occurred during Dynasty 1, and her story has been pieced together from inscriptions found in royal burial complexes, temples, and monuments.
Merneith was born into power as the daughter of the revered King Djer. Growing up in the royal palace in Memphis, she had a front-row seat to the duties and responsibilities of kingship. When her father died, Merneith's brother Djet took the throne and, following the practice of the time, married his sister Merneith.
However, Djet's reign was cut short unexpectedly, leaving his young son Den, barely a toddler, as the heir to the throne. With Den too young to rule independently, Merneith stepped in as queen regent, ruling on behalf of her son.
Merneith's first major task as regent was to arrange the burial of her late husband, King Djet. During Dynasty 1, royal burials were elaborate and often gruesome affairs, involving human sacrifices of wives, servants, and friends. For instance, when Merneith's father Djer was buried, 587 people were sacrificed in the city of Abydos alone.
These sacrificial burials served a dual purpose. Beyond their religious significance, they were also a strategic tool to eliminate potential rivals during the vulnerable period following a king's death, ensuring a smooth transition of power from father to son.
Merneith employed this strategy as skillfully as any of her male predecessors. Near King Djet's burial site, archaeologists have discovered the graves of many high-ranking men, women, and children – likely Den's half-brothers from the royal harem. This suggests that Merneith took decisive action to remove any potential challengers to her son's claim to the throne.
Having established her authority through these rituals of death and sacrifice, Merneith ruled on behalf of her son for six or seven years, until Den was old enough to take the reins of power himself. The Palermo Stone, a famous fragment of a royal monument, records many military successes during Den's reign, suggesting that Merneith had prepared him well for leadership.
Merneith died around the age of 50 and was honored with a burial befitting a king. The skeletons of 120 close allies were found near her tomb at the royal necropolis of Abydos, indicating her high status. However, despite her significant role in ruling Egypt, Merneith never officially took the title of king. That glass ceiling would be shattered by another remarkable woman: Queen Neferusobek.
Neferusobek: Breaking the Glass Ceiling
Queen Neferusobek's rise to power marks a significant milestone in ancient Egyptian history, as she became the first woman to officially claim the title of King. Her story is intertwined with one of the darker aspects of Egyptian royal practice: inbreeding.
Incest was not taboo for ancient Egyptian royalty. In fact, it was considered an ideal strategy for reproduction and maintaining power within the family. This practice was inspired by the myth of Isis and Osiris, whose union produced the heir Horus. By marrying within the family, wealth and power remained concentrated in a close-knit circle, rather than being diluted by marriages to outside elite groups.
However, this practice of inbreeding came with severe costs. Many Egyptian kings suffered from various ailments and deformities as a result. For instance, the famous King Tutankhamun of Dynasty 18 is known to have had a club foot, possibly due to cerebral palsy caused by inbreeding.
Perhaps the most ironic consequence of this practice was sterility – the very thing it was meant to prevent. The Egyptian kingship faced numerous succession crises because kings were unable to produce offspring. It was during one such crisis that Neferusobek rose to power.
Neferusobek was born toward the end of her father Amenemhat III's long and prosperous reign. Following tradition, she married her brother Amenemhat IV when their father died. However, Amenemhat IV, himself a product of incest, was sterile. When he died after a nine-year reign without producing an heir, Egypt faced a succession crisis.
In this moment of uncertainty, the Egyptian elite made a groundbreaking decision. They determined that a female king posed less of a threat to social stability than a succession crisis. Thus, Neferusobek was allowed to take the throne, with the expectation that she would keep the country stable until a suitable heir could be found.
As the first woman to officially claim the title of King, Neferusobek was determined to legitimize her reign. She undertook several projects to demonstrate her piety and highlight her royal lineage. She completed the construction of a temple complex in Hawara that her father had begun and created new places of worship that emphasized her connection to the royal line.
However, Neferusobek faced significant challenges during her reign. The country she inherited was plagued by droughts and hunger, leading to social unrest. Within the palace, elites schemed against her in a secret battle for the throne. After just four years of rule, Neferusobek mysteriously died, and her dynasty came to an end with her.
Despite its brevity, Neferusobek's reign was a watershed moment in Egyptian history. She had broken the glass ceiling, proving that a woman could officially hold the title of King. It would be another 500 years before another woman claimed the kingship, but Neferusobek had set a precedent that would resonate through the ages.
Hatshepsut: Egypt's Most Influential Female King
Nearly five centuries after Neferusobek's groundbreaking reign, Egypt saw the rise of its most influential female king: Hatshepsut. Her story begins with her father, the warrior King Thutmose I of Dynasty 18, who expanded Egypt's borders into the Levant and conquered the mineral-rich provinces of Nubia and Kush.
Hatshepsut, Thutmose I's eldest daughter, inherited her father's determination and leadership skills. Recognizing her potential, Thutmose I appointed her to the prominent office of High Priestess when she was just a girl. This early exposure to religious and political power would prove crucial in her later rise to kingship.
When Thutmose I died, Hatshepsut became the Great Royal Wife of her brother, Thutmose II. However, Thutmose II was sickly and accomplished little during his short reign. Upon his death, a toddler born from his harem was selected as the next king, Thutmose III. With the boy's biological mother incapacitated, Hatshepsut was chosen to rule as regent.
Under Hatshepsut's reign, Egypt's elites appear to have grown even more prosperous. Archaeologists have uncovered a wealth of statues, reliefs, and luxury goods from this period, suggesting an explosion of material wealth. This prosperity indicates that Hatshepsut may have acted as a shrewd power broker, distributing wealth and influence to elites in exchange for their support.
To legitimize her rule in the eyes of the general population, Hatshepsut embarked on an aggressive campaign of self-promotion. She commissioned great works such as the Temple of Millions of Years near Thebes, where she was depicted interacting with the gods. In a carefully orchestrated public celebration, the great oracle of the god Amun at the Temple of Amun in Siwa revealed her as the newly chosen leader of Egypt. When Thutmose III was around nine years old, Hatshepsut officially crowned herself co-king alongside him.
Hatshepsut's reign was marked by significant achievements. Like her father, she led military campaigns into Nubia and Kush, expanding Egypt's borders. She enriched the elites, built impressive temples, and promoted risky but rewarding trading ventures. Her reign lasted for over two decades, making her one of the longest-ruling female kings in Egyptian history.
However, like many women throughout history, Hatshepsut's achievements were later co-opted by the men who succeeded her. After her death at around 50 years old, her nephew and former co-king Thutmose III began systematically erasing all imagery and mention of her from monuments and records. This attempt at historical erasure was so thorough that for many centuries, Egyptologists were unaware of Hatshepsut's existence as a female king.
Despite these efforts to erase her from history, evidence of Hatshepsut's rule remains throughout Egypt. The great Temple of Millions of Years stands as a testament to her power and influence. Modern archaeological techniques have allowed historians to uncover more about her reign, restoring her rightful place in the annals of Egyptian history.
Hatshepsut's story is a powerful reminder of the capabilities of female leadership in ancient times. She not only maintained the prosperity and stability of Egypt but also expanded its influence and wealth. Her reign serves as an inspiring example of how women in power can achieve greatness, even in deeply patriarchal societies.
Nefertiti: The Queen Who Became King
Nefertiti is perhaps the most recognizable name among ancient Egyptian queens, thanks in large part to the famous bust of her face that attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors to the Egyptian Museum of Berlin each year. However, recent evidence suggests that Nefertiti was far more than just a beautiful face – she was a cunning politician who navigated one of the most tumultuous periods in Egyptian history.
Nefertiti's story begins when she became the Great Royal Wife of King Amenhotep IV of Dynasty 18, possibly when she was as young as ten years old. Amenhotep IV had inherited a peaceful and prosperous Egypt, but his radical religious agenda would soon throw the country into disarray.
In the fifth year of his reign, Amenhotep IV ordered a sed festival, typically reserved for the 30th year of a king's reign, and dedicated it to the minor sun god Aten. This marked the beginning of his attempt to establish a new religion centered on the worship of Aten. He changed his name to Akhenaten, meaning "beneficial to Aten," and began building new temples while defunding the old ones.
Akhenaten's religious revolution extended to the physical landscape of Egypt. He abandoned the traditional court cities of Heliopolis, Memphis, and Thebes to build a new capital city, Akhetaten, in the middle of the country. This massive construction project came at a great cost, both in resources and human lives.
For many years, historians believed that Nefertiti had died in Year 12 of Akhenaten's reign when her name disappeared from inscriptions. However, recent evidence suggests a far more intriguing scenario: Nefertiti didn't die, but rather reinvented herself as Akhenaten's new male co-king, taking the name Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten.
When Akhenaten died after 17 years of rule, Neferneferuaten disappeared from the records, and a certain Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare took the throne. Many historians now believe this was likely Nefertiti once again, reinventing herself to maintain her grip on power. In one surviving image, this new king is depicted wearing a feminine garment under a masculine kilt, hinting at the complex gender dynamics at play.
As Smenkhkare, Nefertiti attempted to restore the country that her husband had bankrupted with his radical religious reforms. Her first order of business was to abandon the new city of Akhetaten and return to Memphis, where she reinstalled the cult statues of the old gods. Before her death, she began preparing the next king, the eight-year-old Tutankhamun, whose famous gold tomb was discovered by Howard Carter in 1922.
Intriguingly, contemporary archaeologists have found evidence suggesting that Tutankhamun's tomb might be just the entrance hall to a much larger, more opulent grave – possibly that of Nefertiti herself. This tantalizing possibility has sparked renewed interest in Nefertiti's reign and her potential role as one of Egypt's most influential female kings.
Nefertiti's story is a testament to the political acumen and adaptability of Egypt's female rulers. In the face of her husband's destabilizing religious reforms, she managed to maintain her position of power through multiple transformations. Her ability to navigate the complex political and religious landscape of ancient Egypt, even as it underwent radical changes, demonstrates the resourcefulness and resilience that characterized many of Egypt's female leaders.
Tawosret: The First Solo Female Ruler
The story of Queen Tawosret marks a significant shift in the dynamics of female rule in ancient Egypt. She came to power during a time of significant changes in Egyptian society and politics, and her reign represents both the heights and the limitations of female power in this ancient civilization.
By the time of Dynasties 19 and 20, Egypt had undergone substantial changes. Politics had become more decentralized, and the kingship had opened up, allowing other families to marry into royalty. This led to less royal inbreeding but also increased competition among elite families. At the same time, there was a concerted effort to curtail female authority. Previous women leaders were removed from the king's lists, and measures were taken to ensure that no woman held multiple royal titles.
It was in this challenging environment that Tawosret rose to power. Born around 2000 BC, she became the wife of King Seti II. However, Seti II's claim to the throne was contested by a man named Amunmesses in Lower Egypt, leading to a civil war. Although Seti II emerged victorious, the conflict highlighted the increasing instability of the Egyptian political system.
When Seti II unexpectedly died, a complex power struggle ensued. An influential officer named Bay installed the new King Siptah, a weak child with cerebral palsy, with Tawosret as his maternal regent. However, it seems that both Bay and Tawosret had their own plans for power.
In a bold move, Tawosret appears to have orchestrated the murder of Bay in Year 5 of Siptah's reign. An inscription found at a former workmen's village hints at the demise of the "great enemy Bay," likely at Tawosret's command. Two years later, the 16-year-old King Siptah also died under mysterious circumstances.
With both potential rivals out of the way, Tawosret took the unprecedented step of crowning herself King. This made her the first woman to rule Egypt unaccompanied – and likely the first woman to seize power through strategic political maneuvering and elimination of rivals.
However, Tawosret's reign was short-lived. Between two and four years into her rule, she met an untimely end at the hands of Setnakht, a warlord who became the founder of Dynasty 20. The reasons for her downfall are not entirely clear. Some historians speculate that she was punished for her male-like ambition, while others suggest she was regarded as illegitimate due to her lack of royal blood.
Regardless of the reason, Tawosret's fall marked the end of an era. She was the last female ruler from an Egyptian dynasty to claim the throne. While her reign was brief, it represented a significant moment in Egyptian history – a woman who not only ruled but did so on her own terms, without the pretense of acting as a regent or co-ruler.
Tawosret's story illustrates the complex and often dangerous world of Egyptian politics. It shows how women could navigate this treacherous landscape, using strategy and sometimes force to claim and maintain power. However, it also demonstrates the precariousness of such power, especially for women who dared to rule alone in a patriarchal society.
While Tawosret was the last female ruler from an Egyptian dynasty, she was not the last woman to rule Egypt. That distinction belongs to the most famous female ruler in Egyptian history: Cleopatra.
Cleopatra: The Last Queen of Egypt
Cleopatra, Egypt's last queen, is undoubtedly its most famous, although she wasn't ethnically Egyptian. She was a member of the Ptolemaic Dynasty, a Greek-Macedonian family that inherited Egypt after it was freed from Persian rule in 332 BC. The Ptolemies embraced Egypt's system of divine kingship but combined it with the hypercompetitive political system of the Greeks, resulting in a court rife with conspiracy and murder.
Cleopatra's path to power began at the age of 14 when she was named co-ruler of Egypt by her father, Ptolemy XII. However, when her father died, her brother Ptolemy XIII was named successor and quickly moved to sideline Cleopatra, driving her into exile in Syria.
Ptolemy XIII soon found himself in trouble after allying with the Roman leader Pompey, who was defeated by Julius Caesar in the Roman civil war. Sensing an opportunity, Cleopatra arranged a secret meeting with Caesar when he visited Alexandria. Impressed by her wit and charm, Caesar pressured Ptolemy XIII to reinstate Cleopatra as co-ruler.
Ptolemy XIII, however, was not willing to give up power so easily. He rallied his forces against Caesar and Cleopatra, leading to a conflict that ended with Ptolemy's defeat and death. In the aftermath, Cleopatra took the throne alongside her younger brother, Ptolemy XIV, and invited Caesar to live with her in the palace. She soon became pregnant with Caesar's child, a strategic move that she knew would give her valuable political leverage against Rome.
However, Cleopatra and Caesar's relationship caused outrage in Rome, and shortly after returning to the city, Caesar was assassinated by his fellow senators. Left without her powerful ally, Cleopatra moved quickly to consolidate her power in Egypt. She had her brother Ptolemy XIV poisoned and positioned her young son Caesarion as co-ruler.
Recognizing the need for new allies in Rome, Cleopatra aligned herself with Marc Antony, one of Caesar's former supporters. Their alliance seemed promising at first, with the two supporting each other in matters of state and eventually becoming romantically involved. Cleopatra bore Antony children, seemingly cementing an Egyptian-Roman dynasty.
But their relationship and Antony's apparent favoritism towards Egypt caused discontent in Rome. When Antony's forces suffered a major military defeat, the Romans declared war on Egypt. Despite Cleopatra and Antony's efforts to resist, it became clear that they could not withstand the might of the Roman army.
As defeat loomed, Antony took his own life. The Romans seized Alexandria, killing Cleopatra's son Caesarion and taking her younger children hostage. Recognizing that her ambitious schemes had ultimately failed, Cleopatra chose to end her life as well, reportedly by allowing herself to be bitten by an asp.
Cleopatra's reign marked the end of both the Ptolemaic Dynasty and Egypt's independence. Her story is one of political cunning, ambition, and ultimately, tragedy. She skillfully navigated the complex world of international politics, using her relationships with Roman leaders to build Egypt's power and influence. However, her attempts to play Roman factions against each other ultimately backfired, leading to her downfall and Egypt's annexation by Rome.
Despite her ultimate failure, Cleopatra's reign demonstrates the heights to which a woman could rise in the ancient world. She was a master tactician, a skilled diplomat, and a charismatic leader who came closer than any of her predecessors to establishing Egypt as a major player on the world stage.
Lessons from Ancient Egypt's Female Leaders
The stories of these remarkable women – Merneith, Neferusobek, Hatshepsut, Nefertiti, Tawosret, and Cleopatra – offer valuable insights into leadership, gender dynamics, and the nature of power in the ancient world. Their experiences also hold lessons that remain relevant in our modern context.
One of the most striking aspects of these women's stories is how they were often called upon to lead during times of crisis. Whether it was a succession crisis, a time of social upheaval, or a period of international conflict, women were frequently entrusted with power when the stakes were highest. This suggests that even in a deeply patriarchal society, there was a recognition of women's leadership abilities, particularly in challenging times.
However, it's important to note that these women often faced significant challenges and opposition. Many of them had to work extra hard to legitimize their rule, whether through grand building projects, religious ceremonies, or strategic alliances. They also frequently had to contend with attempts to erase their legacies after their deaths, as seen most dramatically in the case of Hatshepsut.
Despite these challenges, many of Egypt's female leaders achieved remarkable successes. Hatshepsut presided over a period of great prosperity and expansion. Nefertiti navigated a tumultuous religious revolution. Cleopatra nearly succeeded in making Egypt a major player on the world stage. These achievements demonstrate that women were capable of ruling as effectively as men, even in an ancient society.
The leadership styles of these women often differed from those of their male counterparts. Many of them seemed to prioritize diplomacy, consensus-building, and strategic thinking over military conquest. This "softer" approach to leadership, often associated with emotional intelligence and empathy, proved effective in maintaining stability and prosperity.
In our modern context, where women in leadership positions still face significant bias and opposition, the stories of Egypt's female pharaohs offer both inspiration and caution. They show that women can lead effectively at the highest levels of power, even in deeply patriarchal societies. At the same time, they highlight the persistent challenges that women in power face, including heightened scrutiny, double standards, and attempts to undermine their authority.
The author argues that in our current political climate, marked by division and conflict, we would be wise to recognize and value the qualities often associated with female leadership. Traits like empathy, prudence, and pragmatism – which were evident in many of Egypt's female rulers – can be powerful tools for building consensus and navigating crises.
Moreover, these stories challenge us to reconsider our assumptions about leadership and gender. They demonstrate that the dichotomy between "masculine" and "feminine" leadership styles is largely a social construct, and that effective leadership can take many forms.
Conclusion
"When Women Ruled the World" offers a fascinating glimpse into a little-known aspect of ancient Egyptian history. Through the stories of six remarkable women, Kara Cooney illuminates the complex dynamics of power, gender, and leadership in one of the world's oldest civilizations.
These women – Merneith, Neferusobek, Hatshepsut, Nefertiti, Tawosret, and Cleopatra – each left their mark on Egyptian history, despite the efforts of their male successors to erase their legacies. They ruled during times of crisis, navigated complex political landscapes, and in many cases, achieved significant successes for their country.
Their stories challenge our preconceptions about ancient societies and women's roles within them. They demonstrate that even in a deeply patriarchal culture, women could rise to the highest levels of power and rule effectively. At the same time, they highlight the persistent challenges that women in leadership positions face, many of which continue to resonate in our modern world.
As we grapple with our own societal challenges and political crises, the experiences of Egypt's female pharaohs offer valuable lessons. They remind us of the importance of diverse leadership styles, the value of emotional intelligence in governance, and the potential for women to lead effectively in even the most challenging circumstances.
Ultimately, "When Women Ruled the World" is not just a historical account, but a call to reconsider our own attitudes towards leadership and gender. By understanding and appreciating the achievements of these ancient female rulers, we can gain new perspectives on the role of women in leadership today and the unique qualities they can bring to positions of power.
In a world still grappling with gender inequality and bias, the stories of Egypt's female pharaohs serve as a powerful reminder of women's capabilities as leaders. They challenge us to imagine what our own societies might achieve if we, like the ancient Egyptians, were willing to embrace female leadership in times of crisis and beyond.