Work

Work is the thread that has woven together the story of human evolution, shaping not only our bodies and minds but also our societies and values.

1. Life thrives by capturing and expending energy.

Life on Earth is a paradox of order and chaos. While living organisms appear orderly, they contribute to the universe's entropy by capturing and releasing energy. This process began billions of years ago with single-celled bacteria, which converted energy from their environment into chemical bonds. Over time, life forms evolved to harness energy in increasingly complex ways.

For example, cyanobacteria revolutionized life by photosynthesizing sunlight, producing oxygen that fueled the development of oxygen-breathing organisms. Later, creatures with nervous systems emerged, using energy to hunt and consume other living things. This marked a shift in how energy was captured and expended, laying the groundwork for the evolution of work.

Even today, the need to expend energy manifests in seemingly irrational behaviors. Male black-masked weaver birds, for instance, build and destroy nests repeatedly to burn off surplus energy. Similarly, humans engage in energy-intensive activities like running marathons or constructing skyscrapers, often driven by an innate need to release excess energy.

Examples

• Cyanobacteria's photosynthesis enabled oxygen-breathing life forms.
• Male black-masked weaver birds destroy nests to expend energy.
• Humans run ultra-marathons or rebuild cities to channel surplus energy.

2. Tools shaped our evolution, both physically and mentally.

The use of tools has been a defining feature of human evolution. Early hominids developed opposable thumbs and forward-facing eyes to manipulate objects, and their brains grew larger to process the information needed for tool use. The Acheulean hand axe, a teardrop-shaped stone tool, was widely used by Homo erectus, though its exact purpose remains unclear.

Tool-making required trial and error, which helped young hominids develop fine motor skills. It also fostered communication, as teaching others how to use tools necessitated language. This interplay between tool use and communication spurred brain growth, enabling humans to process complex information and navigate their environments more effectively.

Fire, the most transformative tool in human history, revolutionized how humans lived. Cooking made food easier to digest, freeing up energy for brain development. It also created leisure time, which allowed humans to develop language, form social bonds, and even bury their dead—a sign of emerging cultural practices.

Examples

• The Acheulean hand axe was a key tool for Homo erectus.
• Fire enabled cooking, which supported brain growth and socialization.
• Language evolved alongside tool use, enhancing communication and learning.

3. Leaving Africa changed how humans viewed work.

When Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa, their relationship with work evolved. Early humans created specialized tools and began making art, such as snail-shell jewelry and engraved ochre stones. These activities suggest they had more leisure time than we often assume.

Hunter-gatherer societies, like the Ju/’hoansi of Namibia, worked only about 15 hours a week to meet their needs. They avoided surplus accumulation, focusing instead on immediate fulfillment. This lifestyle fostered equality, as there were no hierarchies or wealth disparities.

However, as humans settled in colder climates, they began working for future benefit. They stored food to survive harsh winters, marking a shift toward long-term planning. This new approach to work also gave rise to social hierarchies, as evidenced by the burial of a boy with thousands of mammoth-tusk beads in Russia 30,000 years ago.

Examples

• Early humans created art like snail-shell jewelry and ochre engravings.
• The Ju/’hoansi worked only 15 hours a week to meet their needs.
• Burial sites with elaborate goods indicate the emergence of social hierarchies.

4. Farming demanded more labor than hunting and gathering.

The transition to farming around 10,000 years ago was a turning point in human history. While it allowed populations to grow, it also required significantly more labor. Early farmers, like the Natufians in the Levant, initially benefited from abundant resources but soon faced challenges as populations expanded.

The Malthusian trap explains how population growth consumed any surplus energy generated by farming. This led to frequent population collapses, as evidenced by genetic bottlenecks in early farming communities. Farming also introduced new risks, such as crop failures, which could devastate entire populations.

Despite these challenges, farming societies persisted by expanding into new territories. This expansion was driven by necessity, as communities sought to avoid starvation. Over time, farming reshaped human societies, leading to permanent settlements and more complex social structures.

Examples

• The Natufians stored surplus food in the first granaries.
• Genetic bottlenecks coincided with the rise of farming in Europe.
• Communities expanded into new territories to escape the Malthusian trap.

5. Farming introduced the concept of debt and money.

Farming changed how humans thought about time and resources. Unlike foragers, who focused on immediate needs, farmers had to plan for the future. This shift led to the idea of debt, as farmers exchanged labor for the promise of future rewards.

The first evidence of money comes from Mesopotamian city-states, where clay tablets recorded IOUs. These early forms of credit were tied to agricultural surpluses, which supported the development of complex economies. Over time, money became a tool for measuring labor and wealth.

Cattle, the first interest-earning assets, played a similar role in pastoralist societies. They provided both labor and offspring, making them valuable resources. This reliance on animals for work and wealth laid the foundation for modern economic systems.

Examples

• Mesopotamian clay tablets recorded early forms of credit.
• Cattle served as interest-earning assets in pastoralist societies.
• Farmers exchanged labor for future rewards, introducing the concept of debt.

6. Animal domestication paved the way for human enslavement.

The domestication of animals revolutionized human societies by providing new sources of energy. Cattle and horses, for example, could plow fields and transport goods, significantly increasing productivity. However, this reliance on animals also led to the exploitation of both animals and humans.

Religious and philosophical narratives justified the use of animals for labor. In Europe, animals were seen as soulless machines, a view that later extended to enslaved humans. The Roman Empire institutionalized slavery, using forced labor to build wealth and sustain its economy.

This system of exploitation created deep inequalities, which contributed to Rome's eventual collapse. However, it also set the stage for urbanization, as displaced populations migrated to cities in search of better opportunities.

Examples

• Cattle and horses increased agricultural productivity.
• Religious narratives justified the exploitation of animals and humans.
• Slavery in the Roman Empire exacerbated wealth inequality.

7. Cities transformed work and social structures.

The rise of cities forced humans to rethink how they worked and interacted. Early cities required specialized labor, such as carpenters and stonemasons, to build infrastructure. These roles created new social identities and hierarchies, as people organized into castes and guilds.

Writing emerged as a tool to manage the complexities of urban life. Early cuneiform tablets tracked commercial transactions, enabling the accumulation of wealth and power. This innovation supported the growth of cities, which became centers of economic and cultural activity.

Agricultural advancements, such as the Dutch plow and crop rotation, fueled urbanization by creating surpluses. These surpluses allowed cities to thrive, attracting people from rural areas and driving the development of modern economies.

Examples

• Specialized labor supported the growth of early cities.
• Cuneiform tablets tracked transactions in Mesopotamian city-states.
• Agricultural innovations created surpluses that fueled urbanization.

8. The industrial revolution widened economic inequality.

The industrial revolution transformed work with technologies like the steam engine, which powered factories and increased production. However, it also created harsh working conditions and widened the gap between rich and poor. Factory workers faced long hours and low wages, while the elite amassed unprecedented wealth.

Over time, conditions improved, and workers began earning disposable income. This shift marked a new era in which labor was seen as a means to consume rather than produce. Advertising further fueled this trend, encouraging people to buy more and worry less about inequality.

By the 1980s, wages stagnated while productivity and wealth continued to rise. This growing inequality remains a defining feature of modern economies, as the gap between executives and workers has reached staggering levels.

Examples

• The steam engine revolutionized production in factories.
• Workers began earning disposable income in the mid-19th century.
• CEO pay grew to 300 times that of the average worker by 2015.

9. Our relationship with work is becoming unsustainable.

Modern work has blurred the boundaries between personal and professional life. The rise of digital technologies has made it harder to disconnect, leading to burnout and stress. At the same time, economic systems continue to prioritize profit over well-being, exacerbating inequality and environmental degradation.

This toxic relationship with work threatens both individuals and the planet. Without a shift in perspective, we risk facing a future of radical inequality and climate collapse. To avoid this, we must rethink how we value labor and prioritize sustainable practices.

The history of work shows that change is possible. By learning from the past, we can create a healthier relationship with work that benefits both people and the environment.

Examples

• Digital technologies have blurred work-life boundaries.
• Economic systems prioritize profit over well-being.
• Climate change highlights the need for sustainable practices.

Takeaways

1. Reevaluate your relationship with work by setting boundaries and prioritizing well-being.
2. Advocate for policies that address wage stagnation and reduce economic inequality.
3. Support sustainable practices that balance productivity with environmental responsibility.