Introduction
In "After the Fall," Ben Rhodes takes readers on a journey through the complex landscape of global politics since the end of the Cold War. The book explores how the fall of the Berlin Wall, which seemed to herald a new era of democracy and freedom, instead led to a rise in authoritarianism around the world. Rhodes, a former deputy national security advisor to President Barack Obama, draws on his extensive experience and interviews with key figures to paint a vivid picture of how we arrived at our current political moment.
The book's title, "After the Fall," refers not only to the fall of the Berlin Wall but also to the decline of American influence and the erosion of democratic values globally. Rhodes argues that the actions and policies of the United States in the post-Cold War era inadvertently contributed to the rise of authoritarian leaders and movements in various countries.
Through a series of interconnected stories and analyses, Rhodes examines how countries like Hungary, Russia, and China have embraced authoritarian rule, and how American technology and policies have sometimes enabled this shift. He also explores the personal stories of individuals fighting for democracy in these challenging times, offering a glimmer of hope amidst the troubling trends.
The End of the Cold War and America's Lost Purpose
When the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, it seemed like a triumphant moment for democracy and the United States. People danced in the streets, celebrating the end of Soviet rule in Eastern Europe and the apparent victory of Western ideals. For a brief moment, it looked as though the world was moving decisively towards democracy, with America leading the way.
However, this euphoria was short-lived. As the dust settled, the United States found itself facing an identity crisis. For decades, the country had defined itself in opposition to the Soviet Union and communism. With that enemy gone, America struggled to find a new purpose on the world stage.
In the 1990s, the U.S. began to focus more on promoting economic growth and free markets rather than democratic values. This shift had unintended consequences. As American-style capitalism spread to former Soviet countries, it brought not only new opportunities but also stark economic inequality and political corruption.
The flaws in the American system became increasingly apparent to those in Eastern Europe and elsewhere. The promise of democracy and prosperity often gave way to the reality of a system that seemed designed to benefit the wealthy elite at the expense of ordinary citizens. This disillusionment with the American model would later fuel the rise of nationalist and authoritarian leaders who promised to protect their people from the perceived threats of globalization and Western influence.
The Rise of Viktor Orbán and the Authoritarian Playbook
One of the most striking examples of the shift from democracy to authoritarianism can be found in Hungary, under the leadership of Viktor Orbán. Rhodes uses Orbán's story to illustrate how a once-promising democratic reformer can transform into an authoritarian ruler.
Orbán began his political career in the late 1980s as a left-leaning, pro-democracy activist. He gained prominence for his passionate speeches against Soviet influence and corruption. However, after serving a term as prime minister in the early 2000s and then losing power, Orbán underwent a dramatic transformation.
Following the 2008 financial crisis, which hit Hungary particularly hard, Orbán rebranded himself as a nationalist, populist leader. He tapped into people's fears and frustrations, blaming Hungary's problems on outside influences and promising to return the country to its traditional, Christian values.
Once back in power in 2010, Orbán systematically dismantled Hungary's democratic institutions. His party, Fidesz, won a two-thirds majority in parliament, allowing them to rewrite the constitution and pass over a thousand new laws. These changes consolidated Orbán's power by:
- Taking control of the media, turning major outlets into government mouthpieces
- Restricting the independence of the judiciary
- Limiting civil liberties and freedom of the press
- Changing voting laws to favor his party
Orbán's approach became a blueprint for aspiring authoritarians around the world. By using democratic processes to undermine democracy itself, he showed how a country could slide into authoritarianism without a violent coup or revolution.
Rhodes argues that Orbán's success was partly enabled by the disillusionment with Western-style democracy and capitalism that had set in after the initial optimism of the post-Cold War years. The economic inequality and political corruption that came with the new system made many Hungarians receptive to a leader who promised to protect them from foreign influences and return to traditional values.
Vladimir Putin and the Consolidation of Power in Russia
While Orbán's Hungary provides one model of the shift towards authoritarianism, Vladimir Putin's Russia offers an even more dramatic example. Rhodes traces Putin's rise to power and his systematic dismantling of Russia's fledgling democratic institutions.
Putin's ascent began in the chaotic aftermath of the Soviet Union's collapse. Under Boris Yeltsin's leadership in the 1990s, Russia struggled to transition from communism to capitalism. The economy was in shambles, corruption was rampant, and many Russians felt humiliated by their country's diminished status on the world stage.
In this context, Putin emerged as Yeltsin's chosen successor in 1999. He quickly set about consolidating his power and reshaping Russia in his image. Like Orbán, one of Putin's first moves was to take control of the media. He turned Russia's major television networks into propaganda outlets, using them to shape public opinion and marginalize opposition voices.
Putin also moved to concentrate wealth and economic power in the hands of his allies. He handed control of major industries, particularly in the energy sector, to loyal oligarchs. Those who opposed him, like the wealthy businessman Mikhail Khodorkovsky, found themselves imprisoned or exiled.
As Putin tightened his grip on power, he became increasingly ruthless in dealing with opposition. Critics of the regime, such as Boris Nemtsov and Alexei Navalny, faced harassment, imprisonment, and even assassination attempts. The message was clear: challenging Putin's authority came with severe consequences.
To justify his authoritarian rule, Putin cultivated a strong nationalist narrative. He portrayed Russia as a great power under siege by Western influences, positioning himself as the strong leader needed to restore the country's rightful place in the world. This narrative resonated with many Russians who had felt lost and humiliated in the post-Soviet era.
Rhodes argues that Putin's success in consolidating power was inadvertently aided by actions of the United States and other Western powers. The expansion of NATO into Eastern Europe, for example, played into Putin's narrative of Western encroachment. Similarly, the 2003 invasion of Iraq and other aspects of the War on Terror gave Putin ammunition to portray the U.S. as a hypocritical and destabilizing force in the world.
America's Role in Enabling Authoritarianism
One of the central arguments in "After the Fall" is that the United States, often unintentionally, provided tools and justifications for authoritarian regimes around the world. Rhodes examines several ways in which American actions in the post-Cold War era contributed to the rise of authoritarianism:
The War on Terror: Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, the U.S. response included measures that eroded civil liberties at home and led to controversial military actions abroad. The creation of the Department of Homeland Security, the passage of the PATRIOT Act, and the invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq all provided examples that authoritarian leaders could point to when justifying their own repressive actions.
Torture and Human Rights Abuses: Reports of torture and human rights abuses by U.S. forces, particularly at places like Abu Ghraib and Guantanamo Bay, severely damaged America's moral standing. This made it easier for authoritarian regimes to dismiss U.S. criticism of their own human rights records.
Economic Inequality: The American model of capitalism, which the U.S. promoted globally after the Cold War, led to increasing economic inequality in many countries. This disillusionment with the promised benefits of free-market capitalism created fertile ground for populist and authoritarian leaders who promised to protect their citizens from the negative effects of globalization.
Social Media and Technology: While American tech companies like Facebook and Twitter were initially seen as tools for promoting democracy and free speech, they quickly became powerful weapons in the hands of authoritarian regimes. These platforms were used to spread disinformation, manipulate public opinion, and monitor dissidents.
The 2008 Financial Crisis: The global economic meltdown, which originated in the U.S. financial system, further eroded faith in the American economic model and provided ammunition for critics of Western-style capitalism.
Rhodes argues that these factors combined to create a global environment where authoritarianism could thrive. Leaders like Putin and Orbán could point to American actions to justify their own repressive measures, while also exploiting the disillusionment with the U.S.-led global order to build support for their nationalist agendas.
China's Authoritarian Capitalism
While Hungary and Russia represent different flavors of authoritarian nationalism in Europe, China offers a distinct and potentially more influential model of authoritarianism for the 21st century. Rhodes explores how China has managed to combine elements of capitalism with strict authoritarian control, creating a system that has lifted millions out of poverty while also tightening the Communist Party's grip on power.
China's journey began in the late 1970s with Deng Xiaoping's economic reforms, which opened up the country to foreign investment and allowed for limited market-based activities. Unlike other communist countries, however, China did not couple economic liberalization with political openness. Instead, the Communist Party maintained and even strengthened its control over the country.
The end of the Cold War presented China with both opportunities and challenges. On one hand, it allowed China to deepen its economic ties with the West, particularly the United States. This led to China becoming the world's factory, producing cheap goods for American consumers and fueling rapid economic growth. On the other hand, the collapse of the Soviet Union served as a cautionary tale for Chinese leaders, who were determined to avoid a similar fate.
Under the leadership of Xi Jinping, who came to power in 2012, China has become increasingly assertive on the global stage while tightening control at home. Xi has consolidated his personal power, removing term limits and enshrining his thoughts in the country's constitution. At the same time, China has launched ambitious initiatives like the Belt and Road project, which aims to extend Chinese influence across Asia and beyond.
Rhodes highlights several key aspects of China's authoritarian model:
Technological Control: China has leveraged technology to create a sophisticated system of surveillance and social control. The "social credit" system, which monitors citizens' behavior and assigns them scores that can affect their access to services and opportunities, is a prime example of how technology can be used for authoritarian ends.
Economic Leverage: China's economic might allows it to exert influence over other countries and international organizations. Many companies and governments are reluctant to criticize China's human rights record for fear of losing access to its massive market.
Nationalist Narrative: Like other authoritarian regimes, China promotes a strong nationalist narrative that portrays the country as besieged by hostile foreign forces. This helps justify repressive measures at home and aggressive actions abroad.
Repression of Minorities: China's treatment of minority groups, particularly the Uighur Muslims in Xinjiang province, demonstrates how far the regime is willing to go to maintain control. The mass detention and surveillance of Uighurs has been described by some as cultural genocide.
Rhodes argues that China's model of authoritarian capitalism presents a significant challenge to democratic values globally. Its economic success provides an alternative to Western-style liberal democracy that many developing countries find attractive. Moreover, China's willingness to do business with any regime, regardless of its human rights record, undermines efforts to promote democracy and human rights around the world.
The Role of Technology in Modern Authoritarianism
One of the most striking aspects of modern authoritarianism, as described by Rhodes, is the central role that technology plays in maintaining control. While the internet and social media were initially hailed as tools for promoting democracy and free expression, they have increasingly become powerful instruments of surveillance, propaganda, and social control.
Rhodes explores how different authoritarian regimes have leveraged technology:
Russia: Putin's government has become adept at using social media to spread disinformation and sow discord, both domestically and internationally. The interference in the 2016 U.S. presidential election is a prime example of how Russia has weaponized these platforms.
China: The Chinese government has created a sophisticated system of online censorship known as the "Great Firewall," which blocks access to many foreign websites and monitors domestic internet activity. Additionally, China's social credit system uses big data and artificial intelligence to track citizens' behavior and assign them scores that can affect their lives in numerous ways.
Hungary: Orbán's government has used its control over traditional media and its influence over social media to shape public opinion and marginalize opposition voices.
Rhodes argues that the export of American technology has inadvertently provided these regimes with powerful tools for oppression. Companies like Facebook, Twitter, and Google, in their pursuit of global markets, have sometimes been complicit in enabling authoritarian control. For example, Google's Project Dragonfly, a censored search engine for the Chinese market (later abandoned after public outcry), raised serious ethical questions about tech companies' willingness to compromise on values for market access.
The author also highlights the dilemma faced by these tech companies. On one hand, their platforms can be powerful tools for organizing dissent and spreading information in repressive societies. On the other hand, these same platforms can be co-opted by authoritarian regimes to monitor citizens, spread propaganda, and crush opposition.
Rhodes suggests that addressing this issue will require a combination of corporate responsibility, government regulation, and international cooperation. He argues that tech companies need to be held more accountable for the effects of their products on democracy and human rights around the world.
The Global Impact of Rising Authoritarianism
As Rhodes traces the rise of authoritarian regimes in various countries, he also examines the broader global implications of this trend. The shift away from liberal democracy in influential countries like Russia and China has had ripple effects throughout the international system.
Some key impacts include:
Erosion of International Norms: As powerful countries flout human rights and democratic principles, it becomes harder to enforce these norms globally. This has led to a weakening of international institutions and agreements designed to protect human rights and promote democracy.
Increased Geopolitical Tensions: The rise of nationalist, authoritarian leaders has led to more aggressive foreign policies and increased tensions between nations. Examples include Russia's annexation of Crimea and China's assertive actions in the South China Sea.
Spread of Authoritarian Tactics: Successful authoritarian leaders like Putin and Orbán have provided a playbook for aspiring autocrats in other countries. This has contributed to democratic backsliding in places as diverse as Turkey, the Philippines, and even some EU member states.
Challenges to the Liberal International Order: The post-World War II international system, built largely on Western liberal democratic principles, is under strain as authoritarian powers seek to reshape global norms and institutions to their advantage.
Economic Implications: The rise of state-controlled capitalism in countries like China presents a challenge to the free-market model promoted by the West. This has led to increased economic competition and tensions, as seen in the U.S.-China trade war.
Information Warfare: The use of disinformation and propaganda by authoritarian regimes has global reach, affecting elections and public opinion in democracies around the world.
Rhodes argues that these trends pose a significant threat to global stability and the future of democracy. He suggests that countering this authoritarian wave will require a renewed commitment to democratic values, both domestically and in foreign policy, from the United States and other democratic nations.
Voices of Resistance
Despite the gloomy picture of rising authoritarianism, Rhodes also highlights stories of individuals and movements resisting these trends. These accounts serve as a reminder that the struggle for democracy and human rights continues, even in the face of powerful opposition.
Some of the resistance efforts Rhodes describes include:
Sandor Lederer in Hungary: Once aligned with Viktor Orbán in fighting corruption, Lederer now runs an anti-corruption watchdog organization that the government considers an "enemy of the state." His story illustrates how quickly things can change under authoritarian rule and the personal costs of standing up for democratic principles.
Zhanna Nemtsova in Russia: The daughter of assassinated opposition leader Boris Nemtsov, Zhanna has established a foundation to promote liberal politics and democracy in her father's memory. Her efforts show how the legacy of those who have died fighting for freedom can inspire continued resistance.
Hong Kong Protesters: Rhodes describes the pro-democracy protests in Hong Kong as a powerful example of citizens standing up to authoritarianism. The protesters' determination in the face of increasing pressure from China demonstrates the enduring appeal of democratic values.
Alexei Navalny in Russia: Despite facing persecution, poisoning, and imprisonment, Navalny has continued to be a vocal critic of Putin's regime and a rallying point for opposition in Russia.
These stories of resistance provide a counterpoint to the narrative of authoritarian ascendancy. They show that even in the most repressive environments, there are always individuals and groups willing to fight for democracy and human rights.
Rhodes argues that supporting these voices of resistance should be a key part of any strategy to counter global authoritarianism. He suggests that democracies need to do more to protect and amplify these voices, both through diplomatic pressure and direct support for civil society organizations.
Reasons for Hope
Despite the troubling trends described throughout the book, Rhodes concludes on a cautiously optimistic note. He offers several reasons why he believes that the current wave of authoritarianism may eventually recede:
Historical Perspective: As former President Barack Obama points out in a conversation with Rhodes, the struggle between democracy and authoritarianism has ebbed and flowed throughout history. The current authoritarian trend, while concerning, is not unprecedented.
The Inherent Weakness of Authoritarian Systems: Rhodes argues that regimes built on corruption and the concentration of power are inherently unstable. Eventually, they run out of excuses for their failures and lose the support of the people.
The Resilience of Democratic Ideals: Despite the setbacks, the desire for freedom, dignity, and self-determination remains strong around the world. The continued protests and resistance movements in authoritarian countries testify to this enduring appeal of democratic values.
Potential for Reform: Rhodes suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic could serve as a wake-up call, reminding people of the importance of truth, expert knowledge, and global cooperation. This could potentially lead to a rejection of the isolationist and nationalist tendencies that have fueled authoritarianism.
Growing Awareness of Technology's Dangers: There's an increasing recognition of the threats that unregulated social media and other technologies pose to democracy. This awareness could lead to much-needed reforms and regulations.
The Power of Youth: Rhodes notes that younger generations, having grown up in a more interconnected world, often reject the nationalist and isolationist rhetoric of authoritarian leaders.
While acknowledging the serious challenges facing democracy globally, Rhodes maintains that there are always people willing to stand up for democratic values, even in the most repressive environments. He argues that supporting these individuals and movements is crucial for turning the tide against authoritarianism.
Conclusion
"After the Fall" presents a sobering analysis of how the post-Cold War era, rather than ushering in a new age of democracy, instead saw a resurgence of authoritarianism around the world. Ben Rhodes traces this development through the stories of countries like Hungary, Russia, and China, showing how leaders in these nations have systematically dismantled democratic institutions and consolidated power.
The book also offers a critical examination of America's role in this global shift. Rhodes argues that U.S. actions in the aftermath of the Cold War, including the promotion of a flawed economic model and the excesses of the War on Terror, inadvertently provided tools and justifications for authoritarian regimes.
However, Rhodes does not leave readers without hope. He highlights the stories of individuals and movements continuing to fight for democracy and human rights, even in the face of severe repression. These accounts serve as a powerful reminder of the enduring appeal of democratic values and the resilience of the human spirit.
The author concludes by suggesting that while the current moment is challenging for democracy, it is not insurmountable. He argues that by learning from past mistakes, supporting voices of resistance, and recommitting to democratic principles both at home and abroad, it is possible to reverse the authoritarian tide.
Ultimately, "After the Fall" is a call to action. It challenges readers to recognize the gravity of the threat posed by rising authoritarianism and to engage in the ongoing struggle for democracy and human rights. Rhodes reminds us that the future of global democracy depends on the actions we take today, and that every individual has a role to play in shaping that future.
As the world continues to grapple with the legacy of the post-Cold War era and the challenges of the 21st century, "After the Fall" provides valuable insights into how we arrived at our current political moment and offers thoughtful reflections on the path forward. It is a crucial read for anyone seeking to understand the complex dynamics of global politics and the ongoing struggle between democracy and authoritarianism in our interconnected world.