Introduction
In the realm of philosophy, few names evoke such a mix of profound thought and playful wit as Søren Kierkegaard. His seminal work, "Either/Or," published in 1843, stands as a testament to his unique approach to life's most pressing questions. Far from being a dry philosophical treatise, this book invites readers on an engaging journey through the complexities of human existence, challenging us to confront life's absurdities with both deep reflection and a sense of humor.
"Either/Or" is not your typical philosophical text. Instead of presenting a straightforward argument, Kierkegaard employs a creative literary device: a collection of fictional letters written by two contrasting characters. Through these letters, he explores the tension between two fundamental approaches to life - the aesthetic and the ethical. This innovative structure allows readers to dive deep into each perspective, experiencing the allure and pitfalls of both lifestyles.
As we delve into the pages of "Either/Or," we'll discover a philosopher who urges us to think deeply about how we choose to live, but always with a wink and a smile. Kierkegaard's work is a reminder that pondering life's greatest mysteries need not be a gloomy affair. Instead, it can be an enlightening and even entertaining journey that brightens our spirits while expanding our minds.
The Man Behind the Philosophy
Shaped by Loss
To understand "Either/Or," we must first understand its author. Born in 1813 in Copenhagen, Søren Kierkegaard's early life was marked by profound loss. By the age of 25, he had lost six of his seven siblings and both parents, leaving him nearly alone in the world. This early and intense confrontation with death shaped his outlook profoundly, drawing him towards deep introspection, theology, and philosophy from a young age.
Kierkegaard's experience of loss came to dominate his point of view. In his grief, he began to see the comfortable bourgeois, Christian, middle-class life around him as an illusion - one that distracted people from the deeper meaning of existence. He saw clearly that death awaited everyone and could come at any time. This looming sense of mortality likely drove him to work constantly, resulting in an incredibly prolific writing career.
A Prolific Writer
Between 1843 and 1855, Kierkegaard published over 20 books articulating his philosophy and critique of modern life. Alongside this outsized philosophical production, he was an avid journal writer, and these personal writings provide considerable insight into his philosophical investigations.
"Either/Or," published in 1843, was Kierkegaard's first major work. It explored the idea of aesthetic and ethical ways of life in a creative way through a fictional collection of letters. This was followed just a year later by his seminal "Philosophical Fragments." In 1846 came the influential "Concluding Unscientific Postscript," which expanded on existentialist notions of truth and subjectivity.
A Unique Philosophical Approach
Kierkegaard rejected abstract theologizing and philosophy. Instead, he used literary techniques to emphasize subjective viewpoints and to make readers confront the uncertainty of real life. His focus on individual choice and responsibility in finding meaning laid the groundwork for existentialism.
But Kierkegaard took existential angst far beyond his successors. He saw the absurdity of an indifferent universe in the face of human desires for order and purpose. For him, only embracing this absurdity allowed for authentic religious faith - a paradoxical belief at first glance. Interestingly, it was the simple gospel teachings of his father when he was a child from which Søren found comfort, not the organized church.
The Core of "Either/Or": Aesthetics versus Ethics
At the heart of "Either/Or" lies an exploration of two radically opposing lifestyles - the aesthetic and the ethical. Kierkegaard saw these as representing core human tendencies in constant tension, but both incomplete on their own.
The Aesthetic Life
For Kierkegaard, the aesthetic sphere values individual passion, creativity, and subjective experience. It's a life lived in pursuit of pleasure, beauty, and immediate gratification. The aesthetic individual seeks to maximize enjoyment and minimize boredom, living from moment to moment without concern for long-term consequences or moral considerations.
In "Either/Or," this perspective is represented by a character known simply as "A," an anonymous young man living solely for pleasure, seduction, and amusement. "A" embodies the hedonistic approach to life, constantly seeking new experiences and sensations to stave off boredom and despair.
The aesthetic life has its allure. It's spontaneous, passionate, and full of intense experiences. It celebrates individuality and rejects the constraints of societal norms. However, Kierkegaard suggests that this lifestyle ultimately leads to emptiness and despair. The constant pursuit of pleasure becomes a treadmill, with each new experience providing diminishing returns of satisfaction.
The Ethical Life
In contrast to the aesthetic, the ethical sphere focuses on social obligations, moral codes, and universal duties. It's a life of commitment, responsibility, and self-sacrifice for the greater good. The ethical individual finds meaning in fulfilling their roles and obligations within society, whether as a spouse, parent, citizen, or professional.
This perspective is embodied in the character of Judge Vilhelm, who believes in temperance, hard work, and self-sacrifice to fulfill his civic and familial duties. Vilhelm sees the aesthetic attitude of immediate enjoyment as morally bankrupt, leading to despair.
The ethical life offers stability, purpose, and a sense of belonging within a community. It provides a framework for making decisions and finding meaning beyond mere personal pleasure. However, Kierkegaard also recognizes potential pitfalls in this approach. An unreflective adherence to societal norms and expectations can lead to a loss of individuality and authenticity.
The Either/Or Dilemma
By presenting these two lifestyles side by side, Kierkegaard creates a tension that he believes is inherent in human existence. We are constantly pulled between our desire for personal pleasure and our sense of duty to others and society. This is the "either/or" of the book's title - a constant choice we must make in how we approach life.
Kierkegaard's goal in presenting this dichotomy is not to advocate for either morality or hedonism exclusively. Instead, he seeks to make readers dive into the tension between these spheres and think deeply about the type of life they want to lead. His literary approach, using fictional letters, engages the imagination in service of his core philosophical questions.
The Role of Anxiety in Human Existence
One of the most profound insights in "Either/Or" is Kierkegaard's exploration of anxiety as a fundamental aspect of the human condition. Far from seeing anxiety as merely a negative emotion to be avoided, Kierkegaard posits that it is intrinsically linked to our freedom and self-awareness.
The Dizziness of Freedom
According to Kierkegaard, anxiety arises from our ability to make choices that shape our futures in profound ways. As free beings, we have an immense responsibility for our lives. When confronting difficult forks in the road or existential questions about who we are and how we should live, most of us feel deep anxiety.
This anxiety stems from several sources:
- The complexity of life's choices
- The inability to ever know for certain if we have chosen correctly
- The possibility of making decisions that lead to despair
Kierkegaard describes this experience as the "dizziness of freedom." It's the vertigo we feel when we realize the full weight of our ability to shape our own lives.
Anxiety as a Positive Force
While many might see anxiety as something to be avoided, Kierkegaard takes a different view. He argues that anxiety is actually an expression of our freedom and self-awareness. The presence of anxiety indicates that we are fully engaging with the complexity and responsibility of human existence.
Moreover, Kierkegaard suggests that anxiety can be a productive force in our lives. By embracing our anxiety rather than fleeing from it, we can use it to live more passionately and authentically. Anxiety keeps us aware of life's unpredictability and fragility, pushing us to make the most of our limited time.
The Aesthetic and Ethical Responses to Anxiety
The aesthetic and ethical lifestyles represent different responses to the anxiety of existence. The aesthete, represented by "A" in "Either/Or," flees anxiety by chasing impulses and entertainment. They seek to drown their angst in pleasure and indulgence. While this may provide temporary relief, Kierkegaard argues that it ultimately leads to emptiness and a life half-lived.
On the other hand, the ethical individual, represented by Judge Vilhelm, faces up to life's anxieties through responsible choice and commitment. By accepting their duties and making conscious decisions about how to live, they find deeper meaning. However, Kierkegaard warns that even this approach has its pitfalls if not approached carefully. Submitting blindly to duty or social obligations without deeper questioning can lead to an inauthentic, hollow existence.
Finding Balance
For Kierkegaard, true selfhood requires finding the right balance between freedom and responsibility. We must embrace the moral principles and duties that give life structure and purpose, but also retain the autonomy to question or deviate from social norms when our individual passions demand it.
This process of actively shaping our ethical sphere while remaining true to our individual selves is central to living an engaged and honest life. And anxiety, far from being an enemy, is the experience that accompanies us on this journey of self-creation.
The Father of Existentialism
While "Either/Or" is a profound work in its own right, its impact extends far beyond its pages. Many consider Kierkegaard the founder of modern existentialist philosophy, and the themes he explored in "Either/Or" deeply influenced later thinkers.
Subjectivity Over Systems
One of Kierkegaard's most significant contributions was his emphasis on subjectivity and inward reflection. This stood in stark contrast to the systemic philosophy of Georg Hegel, who had developed an objective, rational philosophy in which reality unfolds according to fixed laws of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.
Kierkegaard found this systemic thinking too abstract and dehumanizing. Instead, he asserted that truth is subjective - it depends on the individual's experience and perspective. This radical rejection of rational objectivity in favor of subjective points of view directly inspired later philosophers to focus their thinking on concrete human experience and existence.
Influence on Later Philosophers
Kierkegaard's ideas reverberated through the work of many subsequent philosophers:
Friedrich Nietzsche built on Kierkegaard's individualism in texts like "Thus Spoke Zarathustra" and "Beyond Good and Evil."
Martin Heidegger's monumental work, "Being and Time," explored human existence through concepts of authenticity and angst partly inspired by Kierkegaard.
Jean-Paul Sartre's famous declaration that "existence precedes essence" echoes Kierkegaard's view of radical freedom in shaping one's own life and values.
Albert Camus, in "The Myth of Sisyphus," praises Kierkegaard's "ironic challenge" in the face of meaninglessness.
Key Existential Themes
"Either/Or" contributed to the philosophical foundations for major existential themes:
- Focus on the individual's experience
- The primacy of choice and responsibility in shaping our lives
- Recognition of life's uncertainty and absurdity
- Passionate commitment to creating meaning in an apparently meaningless universe
Kierkegaard's life-affirming embrace of these ideas saw him dubbed the "melancholy Dane" who launched existentialism into the world.
The Absurdity of Existence
One of the most striking aspects of "Either/Or" is Kierkegaard's recognition and embrace of life's fundamental absurdity. This theme, which runs throughout the book, is encapsulated in its enigmatic title.
The Meaning of "Either/Or"
The title "Either/Or" succinctly captures the absurdity of human existence. In life, we face endless forks in the road - and have to make choices that shape our futures all the time. But there are no easy answers. No matter what we choose, sacrifice and angst inevitably follow.
Kierkegaard illustrates this with various examples:
- If you decide to marry, you'll experience angst. Decide not to marry, and you will still feel angst.
- Strive for a successful career? Angst. Don't strive? You guessed it, you still get angst.
The "either" and "or" ultimately reference the idea that no matter what you choose, anxiety is unavoidable and a part of being human.
Laughing in the Face of Absurdity
Given this inescapable absurdity, what response does Kierkegaard suggest? Surprisingly, it's laughter. He argues that the only rational choice in the face of all this absurdity is to laugh at it. Don't take yourself too seriously, he advises. Find humor in the pointlessness of existence.
As Kierkegaard famously wrote, "The whole of existence makes me laugh." This embrace of absurdity laid the groundwork for 20th-century absurdist writers like Franz Kafka and Albert Camus.
The Myth of Sisyphus
Camus, in particular, took up Kierkegaard's torch in his essay "The Myth of Sisyphus." He uses the ancient Greek myth of a man doomed by the gods to roll a rock uphill for eternity - only to watch it roll back down again every time - as a metaphor for human existence.
For Camus, as for Kierkegaard, blind faith is absurd. Instead, Camus says we must imagine Sisyphus happy as he pushes his boulder for eternity. Happiness comes from within when laughing at the meaninglessness of it all.
The Leap of Faith
So if neither aesthetic hedonism nor ethical duty is fully satisfying, what's left? Kierkegaard suggests a "leap of faith" into the absurdity of existence. This doesn't mean blind religious faith, but rather a passionate commitment to living authentically in full recognition of life's fragility and uncertainty.
We must keep on choosing, over and over, as life unfolds. There is no ultimate meaning - so we might as well lighten up. Make your choices freely, passionately, and with a good-natured laugh at the absurdity of it all.
The Continuing Relevance of "Either/Or"
Nearly two centuries after its publication, "Either/Or" continues to resonate with readers. Its insights into the human condition remain as relevant today as they were in Kierkegaard's time.
Timeless Existential Questions
We still struggle with the existential questions and contradictory impulses so powerfully examined in "Either/Or":
- How do we balance personal pleasure with social responsibility?
- How can we find meaning in a seemingly meaningless universe?
- How do we cope with the anxiety that comes from our freedom to choose?
These questions have no easy answers, but Kierkegaard's work provides a framework for grappling with them in our own lives.
The Challenge of Authenticity
In our age of social media and constant connectivity, Kierkegaard's call for authentic living is more relevant than ever. We are bombarded with images of how we "should" live, what success looks like, and what happiness means. "Either/Or" challenges us to look beyond these external pressures and find our own path.
The tension between the aesthetic and ethical lifestyles plays out in new ways in our modern world. We're pulled between the desire for instant gratification (the aesthetic) and the need for long-term commitment and responsibility (the ethical). Kierkegaard's work helps us navigate this tension.
Embracing Uncertainty
In a world that often demands certainty and clear-cut answers, "Either/Or" reminds us of the value of embracing uncertainty. Kierkegaard's philosophy encourages us to be comfortable with ambiguity, to recognize that life's most important questions often don't have definitive answers.
This perspective can be liberating in an age of information overload. Rather than seeking absolute truths, we can focus on living authentically and passionately in the face of life's uncertainties.
Finding Joy in the Absurd
Perhaps most importantly, "Either/Or" teaches us to find joy and humor in life's absurdities. In a world that can often seem bleak and meaningless, Kierkegaard's playful approach to philosophy is a breath of fresh air.
His message that we can laugh in the face of life's challenges without diminishing their seriousness is as powerful today as it was in the 19th century. It reminds us that even as we grapple with life's deepest questions, we can do so with a light heart and a sense of wonder.
Conclusion: The Lasting Legacy of "Either/Or"
Søren Kierkegaard's "Either/Or" stands as a testament to the power of philosophical inquiry to illuminate the human condition. Through its innovative structure, profound insights, and playful spirit, it continues to challenge and inspire readers nearly two centuries after its publication.
The book's exploration of the tension between aesthetic and ethical lifestyles provides a framework for understanding our own struggles to find meaning and purpose. Its examination of anxiety as an inevitable part of human freedom helps us embrace our responsibilities rather than flee from them. And its recognition of life's fundamental absurdity encourages us to approach existence with both seriousness and humor.
Kierkegaard's influence extends far beyond the pages of "Either/Or." As the father of existentialism, he laid the groundwork for a philosophical tradition that would shape much of 20th-century thought. His emphasis on subjectivity, individual choice, and the creation of meaning in an apparently meaningless universe continues to resonate in philosophy, literature, and popular culture.
But perhaps the most enduring legacy of "Either/Or" is its reminder that thinking deeply about life's greatest questions need not be a gloomy affair. Kierkegaard shows us that we can confront the paradoxes and absurdities of existence with a wink and a smile, finding joy in the very act of grappling with life's mysteries.
In a world that often seems chaotic and meaningless, "Either/Or" offers a path forward. It encourages us to embrace our freedom, face our anxieties, and make passionate choices about how to live. And through it all, it reminds us to laugh - at ourselves, at the absurdity of existence, and at the beautiful, perplexing journey that is human life.
As we close the pages of "Either/Or," we're left not with answers, but with a renewed sense of wonder at the complexity of existence. We're challenged to live more authentically, to think more deeply, and to laugh more freely. In this way, Kierkegaard's work doesn't just illuminate the human condition - it enriches it, inviting us to engage more fully with the grand, absurd adventure of being alive.