Introduction
In "Political Order and Political Decay," Francis Fukuyama, the renowned political scientist, offers a comprehensive analysis of the state of democracy in the modern world. This book serves as a follow-up to his famous "end of history" thesis, which he proposed in the early 1990s following the fall of communist regimes in Eastern Europe. Fukuyama now takes a more nuanced approach, examining the challenges faced by democracies worldwide, with a particular focus on the United States.
The book delves into the complexities of democratic institutions, their evolution, and the factors that contribute to their strength or decay. Fukuyama's work is particularly relevant in today's political climate, where rising populism and institutional weaknesses threaten the stability of democratic systems across the globe.
The Foundation of American Democracy
Fukuyama begins by exploring the roots of American democracy, tracing its development from the country's founding to the present day. He highlights how the US Constitution, ratified in 1789, brought together democratic ideals of equality and fair representation in a revolutionary manner for its time.
However, the author points out that these lofty ideals were often ignored in practice during the country's early history. For much of the 19th century, the United States had a weak and deeply corrupt political system. Political power was concentrated in the hands of the wealthy and influential, with goods and services frequently exchanged for political alliances.
The Progressive Era and the Transformation of American Politics
Fukuyama describes how the late 19th and early 20th centuries marked a turning point in American politics. The Progressive movement, led by figures such as Theodore Roosevelt, began to challenge the status quo and break up big business conglomerates. This period of reform was further bolstered by the New Deal policies of the 1930s, which expanded the role of government in providing social services like healthcare and pensions.
The author emphasizes how industrialization played a crucial role in altering traditional social structures and driving social changes. New political actors, including African-Americans and women's suffrage movements, emerged to challenge the old, corrupt system.
The Triumph of Democracy?
By 1989, with the fall of communist regimes in Eastern Europe, it appeared that democracy had triumphed on the global stage. Fukuyama notes that the number of democracies worldwide increased dramatically, from just 35 in 1970 to nearly 120 in 2010, representing about 60 percent of the world's countries.
However, the author cautions that this spread of democracy has not been without its challenges. Even in established democracies like the United States, significant issues have emerged that threaten the stability and effectiveness of democratic institutions.
The Importance of a Strong Middle Class
One of the key arguments Fukuyama presents is the critical role of a large and strong middle class in maintaining a stable democracy. He draws on a long tradition of political thought, dating back to Aristotle, which emphasizes the importance of the middle class in creating healthy states and democracies.
The author defines the middle class not just in economic terms, but also in terms of social and educational standing. He argues that middle-class individuals tend to place greater value on democracy and individual freedom, and are generally more tolerant of alternative lifestyles compared to those from lower socioeconomic classes.
Fukuyama cites research by economist William Easterly, which shows that a large middle class is associated with better rates of economic growth, education, health, and civil stability. These positive outcomes are linked to middle-class values such as self-discipline, a strong work ethic, and an emphasis on long-term saving and investment.
The author provides historical examples of how the middle class drove the transition to democracy in countries like Denmark and France in the 19th century, followed by Sweden, Germany, and Britain in the early 20th century. In essence, Fukuyama argues that the middle class has been the bedrock of democracy in the Western world.
The Decline of the American Middle Class
Despite the historical importance of the middle class in fostering democracy, Fukuyama points out that the American middle class has been struggling in recent decades. He highlights a hidden trend of decline in middle-class incomes since the 1970s, masked by factors such as the entry of women into the workforce and the use of cheap, subsidized credit.
The author notes that while the top one percent of wealthy families in the United States saw their share of the country's Gross Domestic Product increase from 9 percent in 1970 to 23.5 percent in 2007, middle-class incomes have largely stagnated.
Fukuyama also discusses how technological changes have impacted the middle class. While technological innovations in the 19th and 20th centuries created numerous jobs for low-skilled workers, today's technological advancements often eliminate such jobs through automation. At the same time, new, higher-paying jobs are emerging that reward workers with advanced skills, leading to increased income inequality.
The Influence of Lobbying on American Democracy
Fukuyama introduces the concept of "repatrimonialization" to describe how rich and powerful individuals dominate democratic institutions to pursue their interests at the expense of the general population. He identifies lobbying as a key manifestation of this phenomenon in the United States.
The author traces the explosive growth of the lobbying industry in Washington, D.C., from just 175 registered lobbying firms in 1971 to a staggering 12,000 firms in 2013, spending more than $3.2 billion on lobbying activities. Fukuyama argues that this massive lobbying effort distorts American public policy across many areas, with the tax code being a prime example.
The power of lobbyists and other influential activists, according to Fukuyama, has led to a crisis of representation. The public increasingly feels unrepresented and voiceless in the face of special interest groups that wield disproportionate influence over politicians and policy-making.
The Rise and Fall of the US Forest Service
To illustrate the challenges faced by political institutions, Fukuyama presents a case study of the US Forest Service (USFS). Founded in 1905, the USFS initially embodied the best ideals of American democracy during the Progressive Era. It was staffed by university-educated professionals chosen based on merit and technical expertise, rather than personal connections and favors.
However, Fukuyama traces how the USFS transformed from a model of efficiency to a dysfunctional bureaucracy. He attributes this decline to conflicting public expectations and pressure from various interest groups. The agency's original mission of sustainable forest use was complicated by the added responsibility of containing forest fires, leading to conflicts between homeowners, environmentalists, and other stakeholders.
As these conflicting groups used their access to Congress and the courts to serve their own interests, the USFS grew into a sprawling, inefficient organization. Fukuyama argues that this downward spiral is emblematic of what happens across government agencies in the United States on a massive scale.
Institutional Rigidity and Political Decay
Fukuyama identifies the inability of institutions to adapt to change as a key source of political decay in the United States. While he acknowledges that some degree of stability is necessary for institutions to function effectively, he argues that excessive rigidity can hinder progress and lead to decay.
The author explains that democratic decay often results from the failure of institutions to adapt effectively to rapidly shifting circumstances, especially when new social groups with new political demands challenge the status quo. However, Fukuyama also notes that political decay can be a necessary precursor to political development, as old structures must sometimes break down to make way for new ones.
The challenge, according to Fukuyama, lies in finding a balance between institutional stability and adaptability. He argues that if old institutions are too resistant to change or inefficient at incorporating different points of view, they will impede the emergence of new, more effective institutions.
The Complexities of Power Struggles
Fukuyama emphasizes that there are no easy solutions to the challenges facing American democracy. He argues that understanding the complexities of power struggles is crucial not only for comprehending the politics of the United States but also for grasping global political dynamics.
The author encourages readers to look beyond simplistic explanations and to consider the intricate interplay of historical, social, economic, and institutional factors that shape political outcomes. By doing so, we can better appreciate the strengths and weaknesses of democratic systems and work towards their improvement.
Final Thoughts
In "Political Order and Political Decay," Francis Fukuyama provides a nuanced and thought-provoking analysis of the state of democracy in the modern world, with a particular focus on the United States. He challenges readers to consider the complex factors that contribute to the strength or weakness of democratic institutions.
Fukuyama's work serves as a wake-up call, highlighting the ongoing challenges faced by democracies worldwide. He emphasizes the importance of a strong middle class, the need for institutional adaptability, and the dangers of excessive influence by special interest groups.
The book's key messages include:
- The critical role of a large and strong middle class in maintaining stable democracies.
- The hidden decline of the American middle class and its potential consequences for democratic stability.
- The distorting influence of lobbying and special interest groups on American public policy.
- The importance of institutional adaptability in the face of changing social and economic conditions.
- The complex interplay of factors that contribute to political development and decay.
By examining these issues in depth, Fukuyama provides readers with a framework for understanding the challenges facing modern democracies and the potential paths forward. His work encourages us to think critically about the institutions that underpin our political systems and to consider how they can be strengthened and improved to better serve the needs of all citizens.
As we grapple with rising populism, increasing income inequality, and the erosion of trust in democratic institutions, Fukuyama's insights offer valuable guidance for policymakers, scholars, and engaged citizens alike. By understanding the historical context and complex dynamics of political order and decay, we can work towards building more resilient and responsive democratic systems that can withstand the challenges of the 21st century and beyond.