Politics Summary

“What is the best way of organizing a society and achieving the common good?” Aristotle's "Politics" dives deep into these timeless questions.

1. Humans Are Moral Creatures Because They Can Speak and Reason

Aristotle starts by examining human nature to understand society better. Using his empiricist approach, he observes that humans, unlike other animals, have the unique ability to reason and communicate through language, which makes us moral creatures. This gift of "logos" – meaning both reason and speech – allows humans to make moral judgments and cooperate on ethical matters.

In his observations of animals, Aristotle notes that social species, like bees, organize themselves into structured communities with roles that benefit the group. Humans, however, take this further by debating how their societies should be governed. This ability to deliberate and reason separates humans from other species, granting them the capacity to understand concepts like justice.

Through speech and reason, humans can articulate their thoughts about right and wrong and shape their actions accordingly. Aristotle believed this faculty allows us to pursue a virtuous life, one focused on ethical decision-making and collective well-being.

Examples

• Bees organize into colonies with soldiers, workers, and queens, but they don't debate their societal structure.
• Humans use sophisticated language to express moral philosophies, such as fairness or justice.
• By reasoning, humans can convince others to adhere to moral standards, like stopping harm against another person.

2. Humans Are Political Animals

According to Aristotle, humans are inherently suited to live within organized political communities, or "polis," because it fulfills their need for reasoned collaboration. To Aristotle, the polis is not an artificial constraint but a natural and necessary aspect of human life.

He argues that life outside the polis becomes chaotic because humans, endowed with intelligence, can use it for either moral or immoral purposes. By choosing to participate in a polis, people agree to use reason to create laws and ideals that guide life toward the greater good. Instead of unchecked instincts, reasoned deliberation shapes human interactions in the polis.

Aristotle aligns the highest form of human life with the ethical use of intellect in political contexts. He advocates that political life provides the structure needed for people to discover shared values and work collectively for virtuous ends, creating a stable and thriving society.

Examples

• Aristotle compares humans in a polis to a well-organized beehive, but with added deliberation over shared laws and ethics.
• He warns that living outside of political communities can lead to humans misusing intellect for destructive purposes, such as tyranny.
• Cities develop laws through collective debate, an act Aristotle sees as nurturing humanity's higher purpose.

3. Bad Governance Leads to Immoral Societies

Though Aristotle sees the polis as humanity's best chance for virtue, not all city-states fulfill this potential. Many ancient Greek city-states pursued wealth and power instead of fostering ethical and virtuous lives among their citizens.

Aristotle argues that every society consists of ruling and ruled elements, analogous to the relationship between the soul and the body. Just as the soul should govern the body for health and balance, the rational and virtuous should govern city-states. When greed or unbalanced power governs instead, cities devolve into chaotic or immoral systems.

He insists that good governance requires reasoning leaders pursuing collective virtues instead of personal gain. Societies that fail in this regard are "badly ruled" and abandon the moral purpose of human associations.

Examples

• Aristotle criticized Sparta for valuing military virtue over broader ethical virtues like justice or moderation.
• Cities that prioritize wealth over justice fail citizens' potential for virtuous living.
• Aristotle likens misrule in cities to a body taking over a soul, causing disharmony.

4. Aristotle Defends Slavery, Albeit Problematically

Aristotle controversially defends slavery, but not in the context that we view it today. He justifies a concept of "natural slaves" – individuals supposedly incapable of reasoning for themselves, requiring guidance from masters who possess superior intellect and virtue.

For Aristotle, this master-slave relationship is like the soul ruling the body – meant to benefit both parties. Slaves, through their labor, indirectly participate in the “life of reason” by supporting the intellectual pursuits of the free citizens. However, he acknowledges flaws in ancient practices, like enslaving individuals captured in wars regardless of their nature.

This argument, though framed within his philosophy, reflects the reliance of ancient cities on large enslaved populations. While his reasoning shows an effort to justify the inequality of his society, modern ethics reject the concept entirely.

Examples

• Aristotle claims natural slaves exist to support more reasoning masters, creating order.
• He critiques enslavement based merely on conquests in war.
• Ancient Athens relied heavily on slave labor to allow citizens to engage in philosophy and politics.

5. Reasoning Sets Free Humans Apart

Aristotle distinguishes between technical reasoning (practical skills like crafting or arithmetic) and practical reasoning (guidance toward ethical and virtuous living). He reserves civic participation for free citizens capable of this higher-level reasoning.

He critiques the reasoning of non-Greek societies or even those enslaved. While they may be skilled at engineering or mathematics, they lack what Aristotle views as the ability to deliberate on higher ideals. In his definition, only those people who pursue moral and virtuous ends rise above a life of mere necessity.

This distinction underlines why Aristotle believes practical reasoning, or wisdom, is vital in governance. Leaders must aim for a virtuous and ethical civic life rather than a rule based on material desires.

Examples

• Technical reasoning builds physical tools but does not answer moral philosophical questions.
• Practical reasoning motivates laws that create balanced societies rather than unjust oligarchies.
• Free citizens can reason about justice, while Aristotle dismisses enslaved people’s philosophical capabilities.

6. Correct and Deviant Forms of Government

Aristotle divides governments into six forms: three "correct" (monarchy, aristocracy, polity) and three “deviant” (tyranny, oligarchy, democracy). Correct ones govern for the common good, while deviant ones prioritize selfish goals.

He champions monarchy as the ideal government, though he quickly admits it is prone to falling into tyranny, its corrupt counterpart. Rule by small groups (aristocracy) or the many (polity) are better suited to long-term success, as long as they serve shared values.

Of the flawed regimes, Aristotle singles out democracy, accusing it of favoring majority desires over virtue. True governance, he says, requires balancing diverse interests toward shared ethical goals.

Examples

• Monarchy degenerates into tyranny when leaders act selfishly.
• Democracy loses balance when majority rule tramples minorities' rights.
• Polity aims for shared prosperity and avoids class conflict.

7. Class Struggles Create Political Instability

Ancient democracies often struggled with inherent class conflicts between the wealthy minority and the poorer majority. Aristotle points out that both groups misuse power when in control, creating divisions.

The poor, when ruling, often seek to redistribute wealth, fueling resentment among the rich. Meanwhile, the ruling elite manipulate governments to protect their privileges, alienating the masses.

To address these issues, he suggests focusing governance on the shared moral language of justice and promoting stability through fair laws and middle-class participation.

Examples

• Conflicts in Athens arose as rich elites resisted redistribution from the poorer majority.
• Critics accused democratic policies of exploiting state funds to appease the masses.
• Factions emerged around leaders promising retributive tax policies, escalating tensions.

8. Laws Should Handle Decisions, Not Desires

Aristotle believes that both the rich and poor fail to prioritize a city’s common good for personal gain. He suggests minimizing human influence by allowing impartial laws to decide on governance and disputes wherever possible.

Laws, he argues, are "wisdom without appetite," embodying principles of justice immune to personal greed. By trusting in established legal frameworks, cities can avoid the instability caused by short-term political ambitions.

This approach ensures decisions aren't swayed by power dynamics but remain focused on fairness and reason.

Examples

• Laws prevent leaders from arbitrarily redistributing resources to their supporters.
• Codified justice gives citizens trust in fair outcomes, even under undesirable rulers.
• Ancient laws, like contracts or treaties, maintained order across city-states.

9. Middle Classes Provide Political Stability

Aristotle views the middle class as ideal citizens to maintain order in a city-state. Neither arrogant like the rich nor resentful like the poor, the middle class is most inclined to pursue shared interests and stability.

He argues that economic inequality erodes trust and civic life. Only a balanced middle class provides the temperance and level-headedness needed for fair governance.

Polis works best when its majority thrives in moderation, allowing the city to avoid factional divides and power struggles driven by extremes.

Examples

• Middle-class citizens are less likely to exploit power for personal wealth than the upper class.
• They resist populist leaders promising redistribution at the expense of the city.
• Moderate economic prosperity aligns with the city's overall success.

Takeaways

1. Promote balanced laws to limit human bias in governance and ensure fair resolutions.
2. Encourage the growth of a strong middle class to stabilize modern political systems.
3. Emphasize collective dialogue and reasoning over divisive or extreme political debates for long-term unity.