Second Treatise of the Government Summary

Where does power originate, and when do we have the right to resist it?

1. The State of Nature: Freedom and Equality Governed by Reason

In John Locke's vision of the state of nature, people exist in a state of absolute freedom and equality. Unlike societies governed by institutions, this natural state has no political structures or laws, but it is not lawless. Locke asserts that the "law of nature," a God-given ethical code embedded in human reason, governs our actions. These laws dictate that we should not harm others and strive to preserve humanity.

In this state, people retain rights to self-defense and self-preservation. However, Locke introduces the idea that these rights come with moral limits. For instance, while you can protect yourself or demand reparations for harm, the punishment must fit the violation. Even in the absence of formal laws, individuals are expected to act reasonably toward one another, maintaining harmony.

Locke’s philosophy emphasizes balance — a natural right to freedom does not mean unrestrained behavior. Instead, reason guides human actions in ways that promote fairness and mutual respect, even in a society without institutions.

Examples

• Defending your home against an intruder in a way that avoids excessive harm.
• In a community without legal systems, resolving disputes by mutual understanding rather than retaliation.
• Asking for fair reparations if someone unnecessarily destroys something you own.

2. Ownership Arises Through Labor

Locke believed you acquire ownership of something through labor. By working on a resource in the state of nature, the individual imbues it with part of himself, thus claiming it. The world’s resources are part of a shared bounty provided by God for all to enjoy, but ownership comes when someone adds their effort to it.

However, Locke limits this right to ownership. First, no one should deprive others of their fair share of resources. Second, you shouldn’t take more than you can use. Ownership exists in harmony with the law of nature, where overconsumption or wastefulness violates the rights of others in the community.

This principle provides a strong foundation for property rights, emphasizing that ownership must benefit others and follow fair distribution. Locke’s idea continues to influence modern debates on resource allocation and ownership.

Examples

• Owning the vegetables you grow in a shared community garden.
• Collecting only the apples you need from a tree accessible to everyone.
• Failing to justify owning ten unused houses in a society with a housing shortage.

3. Slavery Violates Natural Law, Except in Rare Cases

Although slavery was common in Locke's time, he rejected it as a violation of natural liberty. He argued that all people are born free and equal, and no one has the inherent right to rule over another. Even voluntarily giving up one’s freedom, Locke argued, violates the fundamental right to self-preservation.

Locke made one exception: if a person commits a serious crime and forfeits their right to life, they could be enslaved or punished by those affected. This extreme condition highlights Locke's broader emphasis on the natural rights of every individual and the moral limits imposed on ownership of human beings.

While this stance was progressive for its era, modern perspectives critique Locke for allowing any justification of slavery at all.

Examples

• Rejecting the idea of becoming someone’s property voluntarily, as it violates self-preservation laws.
• Clarifying that one’s labor, not one’s life, can be sold, such as in employment contracts.
• Enslaving a wartime aggressor who has forfeited their rights through violent acts.

4. Parents Hold Power to Protect, Not Control

Parents, Locke contends, have a natural responsibility to nurture and guide their children because children lack the reasoning abilities to fully act on their freedom. This temporary authority is meant to help children develop the rational capacities needed for independence as adults.

Unlike political power, parental power is rooted in guardianship rather than dominance. It aims to protect children until they are capable of understanding and acting within the law of nature. Once children grow up and reach maturity, they become fully autonomous individuals.

This distinction between parental and other forms of power highlights Locke’s insistence that no one has an inherent right to dominate another, even those in their care.

Examples

• A parent intervening to stop a child from harmful behavior, like drug use.
• Teaching children to respect others’ rights while permitting more freedom as they mature.
• Recognizing the shift from authority to a respectful adult relationship as children grow.

5. Political Power Demands Consent

Locke argued that political power is distinct from other forms of authority, such as parental power, because it relies entirely on the consent of the governed. No one can impose political authority over others without their agreement. Locke included the state of nature in this idea, where people only leave that condition to form a government if they believe it protects their liberty and property.

This idea forms the basis of social contract theory. Government exists not to dominate but to safeguard life and property. When political authority oversteps its purpose or acts without consent, it is no longer legitimate.

Locke’s belief in consent remains central to democratic societies, which prioritize the will of the people.

Examples

• Electing officials to create and enforce laws with the approval of the majority.
• Choosing to form alliances or agreements with nearby communities in a state of nature.
• Rejecting a monarchy imposed through conquest without public support.

6. War Cannot Justify Power Over Others

Locke disputed the right of a conqueror to impose political authority. Even in wartime, defeated individuals and their families retain their natural rights. Only soldiers and generals, who willingly forfeit their lives by fighting, may face complete subjugation after defeat.

For Locke, conquest does not transfer political legitimacy. The people, distinct from their leaders, cannot be punished simply because their government failed in war. This principle protects citizens from collective punishment and argues for the preservation of individual freedoms even amid conflict.

Examples

• Restricting punishment after war to participating military personnel rather than civilians.
• Allowing the defeated parties to retain property rights rather than seizing their land.
• Recognizing the independence of noncombatants as distinct from government actions.

7. Dividing Power Prevents Abuse

Locke advocated splitting political power into legislative and executive branches. Legislative power, which creates laws, holds the highest authority. However, an independent executive branch must enforce these laws to avoid potential abuses.

By separating these roles, Locke reduced the risks of tyranny, where unchecked political leaders could write and enforce self-serving laws. This framework laid the foundation for modern systems of checks and balances.

Examples

• A parliament that creates laws but relies on an independent judiciary to interpret them.
• Avoiding conflicts of interest by preventing lawmakers from serving as law enforcers.
• Using term limits or elections to prevent legislative overreach.

8. Governments Have Limits

Political authorities can overstep their boundaries in creative ways. Locke argued their power is not absolute. Legislatures must protect individual rights, not pass oppressive or exploitative laws. Similarly, executive authorities have prerogatives — the right to act beyond the law — only when it benefits the public.

Both legislative and executive powers must consider the people’s trust. If they betray it, whether by enacting oppressive policies or abusing their prerogative, their authority becomes invalid.

Examples

• Preventing excessive taxation that violates personal freedom.
• Allowing emergency actions, such as demolishing structures to stop a flood, only when clearly necessary.
• Monitoring lawmakers to ensure policies reflect public interests.

9. The Right to Resist

Locke emphasized people’s right to resist unjust governments. Tyranny, favoritism, and loss of public trust all justify rebellion. Resistance is valid even if leaders argue otherwise; the judgment lies solely with the people, as they are the rightful source of political power.

This doctrine supports the idea that government serves the people, not the other way around. Resistance keeps power in check and reflects Locke’s commitment to liberty and accountability.

Examples

• Revolting against monarchies that impose laws without representation.
• Removing nepotistic governments that prioritize personal alliances over public welfare.
• Protesting or overthrowing authorities that deny individual freedoms.

Takeaways

1. Exercise your right to voice concerns or protest political actions that infringe on liberties or fairness.
2. Respect other individuals’ freedoms and rights, even in situations without formal rules or laws.
3. Value meaningful consent and accountability in leadership, whether in political, parental, or communal contexts.