The American Presidency

What rules bind the president of the United States, and how has this position evolved within the "great experiment" of constitutional democracy?

1. The Presidency Was an Experimental Concept

In 1787, America was an untamed experiment in governance. Having achieved independence in 1783, the Founding Fathers sought to create a republic that balanced leadership and limited power. Their solution was the presidency, an office that combined attributes of both a monarch and a prime minister. However, they avoided terms like "governor" to sidestep associations with British rule, opting instead for "president," derived from the Latin word praesidere, meaning "to preside."

To ensure no single office became overly powerful, they designed the government with three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. Power was divided to maintain balance, and the establishment of the electoral college ensured that state and federal priorities were integrated into presidential elections. This groundbreaking system allowed citizens to have indirect input through electors, ensuring a balance between state and central power.

The electoral college was a compromise between two camps. Federalists wanted a strong central authority and argued for direct election by people. Meanwhile, Anti-Federalists preferred power to remain with states, suggesting that Congress determine elections. The college has remained in place since inception, continuing to mirror this experimental balance.

Examples

• The separation of powers in the Constitution—executive, legislative, and judicial—was unique for its time.
• The title "president" was chosen intentionally to avoid monarchical connotations.
• The electoral college addressed the divide between Federalists and Anti-Federalists by blending state and public involvement.

2. Clear Roles for Three Branches of Government

The Founding Fathers outlined clear divisions of power within their new capital, Washington, DC. Established in 1790, the city housed three distinct institutions: the White House for the executive branch, the Capitol for Congress, and the Supreme Court for the judiciary. Each branch had unique responsibilities, with no single body becoming overwhelmingly dominant.

Debates during the Constitution's drafting centered on different visions of presidential power. The "presidential presidency" argued for strong executive control. The "congressional presidency" advocated for Congressional approval of executive decisions. Finally, the "separated presidency" ensured independence while promoting cooperation among branches. The latter model was adopted and remains the foundation of the United States' checks-and-balances system.

This separation ensures no branch operates unchallenged. Presidential vetoes can halt legislation, but Congress can override these with a two-thirds majority. Similarly, the Senate confirms cabinet appointments, reinforcing shared governance and accountability.

Examples

• The Capitol, White House, and Supreme Court represent a physical and symbolic separation of powers.
• Debates in 1787 led to the adoption of the "separated presidency" model.
• Tools like the veto and Senate confirmations illustrate inter-branch checks.

3. The Evolution of Presidential Elections

Initially, the election process created unexpected conflicts, such as John Adams and rival Thomas Jefferson serving as president and vice president in 1796. The Twelfth Amendment of 1803 resolved this by grouping the president and vice president together on one ticket.

Major political conventions were introduced in 1831. These gatherings formalized the nomination process, shifting decision-making from Congressional insiders to party delegates. Later, primary elections allowed citizens to influence their party's nominee directly, amplifying public involvement.

The introduction of state primaries, beginning with Florida in 1901, revolutionized campaigns. By allowing citizens to voice their preferences locally, primaries democratized candidate selection and ensured nominees reflected broader support.

Examples

• The Twelfth Amendment restructured the role of the vice president to align with the president.
• The first political conventions in 1831 formalized nominations.
• Primary elections expanded from Florida to over 20 states by 1920.

4. Presidential Action Depends on Interdependence

The separation of powers makes it challenging for presidents to easily enact their agendas. While the president proposes new laws, Congress legislates, and the judiciary provides constitutional oversight. A president's success often hinges on their relationship with Congress.

Lyndon Johnson, with decades of Congressional experience, used negotiation to pass major initiatives like Medicare. In contrast, Barack Obama's limited time in Congress left him reliant on partisan support, making progress difficult when Republicans gained control of Congress.

When traditional channels fail, presidents may turn to executive orders. Barack Obama used this approach for domestic policies like immigration reform, though such tactics often face legal challenges.

Examples

• Lyndon Johnson's experience in Congress enabled him to negotiate landmark "Great Society" programs.
• Barack Obama's reliance on executive orders resulted from partisan opposition in Congress.
• Supreme Court challenges ensure checks on executive orders deemed unconstitutional.

5. The Presidency Adapts to Modern Realities

The presidency continues to evolve alongside global and domestic changes. For example, the timeline for a new presidency shifted in 1933 from March to January to reduce the "lame-duck" period. Franklin D. Roosevelt's unprecedented four terms, however, prompted the two-term limit imposed by the 22nd Amendment in 1947.

New challenges often defy traditional norms. Post-9/11, George W. Bush initiated military actions without Congressional declarations of war, citing terrorism as a loophole. Emerging threats like drone warfare similarly raise questions about executive authority in uncharted territory.

As world events redefine threats, the president's role will likely continue to expand and adapt in response.

Examples

• The 1933 Inauguration timeline minimized transitional inefficiencies.
• FDR’s fourth term led to the passage of the 22nd Amendment.
• Terrorism allowed George W. Bush to bypass traditional Congressional war approvals.

Takeaways

1. Stay informed about the branches of government and their interdependence—it provides a clearer understanding of checks and balances in action.
2. Recognize the importance of voting in shaping the presidency, both during presidential elections and primaries.
3. Reflect on how historical precedent and constitutional amendments shape modern governance; history shows laws often shift to adapt to change.