Introduction
In late August 2021, the world watched as C-17 transport planes departed Kabul, carrying the last of the United States soldiers, diplomatic staff, and civilians. This marked the end of America's longest armed conflict – a 20-year war that reshaped global politics, American military strategy, and Afghan society. Carter Malkasian's book, "The American War in Afghanistan," provides a comprehensive analysis of this protracted and costly conflict, from its inception in the aftermath of 9/11 to its controversial conclusion two decades later.
This summary will take you through the key events, strategies, and turning points of the war, offering insights into the cultural, political, and military challenges that shaped its course. We'll explore how the initial invasion unfolded, how the conflict escalated during the Bush and Obama years, and the final, tumultuous days leading to the US withdrawal. Along the way, we'll examine the various factors that contributed to the war's longevity and ultimate outcome.
Afghanistan: A Land of Complexity and Conflict
To understand the American war in Afghanistan, it's crucial to first grasp the country's unique geography, demographics, and historical context.
Geography and Demographics
Afghanistan is a landlocked country situated at the crossroads of Central and South Asia. Its landscape is characterized by rugged, mountainous terrain and arid deserts, which have historically made it difficult to govern and control. The country's population of around 33 million is predominantly rural, with major urban centers in Kabul (the capital) and Herat.
The Afghan people are ethnically and culturally diverse. The largest ethnic group, the Pashtuns, make up about 40% of the population and have traditionally held political dominance. Other significant groups include Tajiks, Hazaras, Uzbeks, and Nuristanis. This ethnic diversity has often been a source of tension and conflict within the country.
A History of Resistance
Afghanistan has a long history of resisting foreign invasions. From 1839 to 1919, the British made three unsuccessful attempts to colonize the region. After a period of self-rule, the Soviet Union invaded in 1978, leading to a destructive decade-long occupation that ultimately failed.
Following the Soviet withdrawal, Afghanistan descended into civil war as various factions vied for control. This power vacuum allowed the rise of the Taliban, a militant Islamic fundamentalist group. Starting in 1994, the Taliban gradually took control of the country, implementing a strict interpretation of Islamic law that severely curtailed women's rights and fostered religious extremism.
The US Invasion: A Swift Victory Followed by Slow Decline
The Road to War
The events of September 11, 2001, set in motion the chain of events that would lead to the US invasion of Afghanistan. In the weeks following the attacks, American intelligence quickly identified al-Qa'eda, led by Osama bin Laden and based in Afghanistan, as the perpetrators. The Bush administration demanded that the Taliban, then in control of Afghanistan, hand over bin Laden and other al-Qa'eda operatives.
The Taliban, divided on their support for al-Qa'eda, offered to send bin Laden to a third-party country. However, this proposal was rejected by the US government, which was under pressure to respond forcefully to the 9/11 attacks. With public opinion strongly in favor of military action, the stage was set for invasion.
Operation Enduring Freedom
On October 7, 2001, the United States launched Operation Enduring Freedom. The initial strategy involved a combination of airstrikes and ground operations, with CIA operatives and US special forces collaborating with the Northern Alliance, an anti-Taliban organization within Afghanistan.
The Taliban, despite their control over much of the country, were no match for the overwhelming military might of the United States. Within weeks, the northern provinces fell to the coalition forces. By November 13, the Taliban had been forced out of Kabul. Their final stand in the southern region of Kandahar was overcome by forces led by Hamid Karzai, an American-backed Pashtun leader.
Post-Invasion Challenges
In the aftermath of the initial invasion, the US installed Karzai as the interim president, believing he could unify Afghanistan's competing factions. The Bush administration, working with Karzai, attempted to develop a plan to reconstruct Afghan society, aiming to create a more stable, democratic country aligned with US interests.
However, the task of nation-building in Afghanistan proved to be far more challenging than initially anticipated. The Bush administration's confidence that it could achieve its goals with a small US military presence of around 5,000 troops would prove to be wildly optimistic in the years to come.
The Taliban Resurgence: 2002-2005
The period from 2002 to 2005 was deceptively peaceful in Afghanistan. Under Karzai's leadership and backed by US power, the country embarked on a process of post-war reconstruction. Karzai's government attempted to balance ethnic tensions and granted regional governors significant autonomy to manage their provinces.
However, beneath this veneer of stability, tensions were brewing. Several factors contributed to the gradual resurgence of the Taliban during this period:
Continued popularity: Outside of Kabul, the Taliban retained widespread support, particularly in rural areas.
External support: The Taliban continued to receive funding and training from bases in Pakistan.
US military missteps: Botched military operations that resulted in civilian casualties eroded support for the US presence. For example, in 2002, US forces bombed a wedding party, killing 54 people.
Government instability: The interim government began losing control in the southern provinces of Kandahar and Helmand, where Taliban deputy Mullah Dadullah was raising an insurgent militia.
The 2006 Taliban Offensive
In February 2006, Mullah Dadullah launched a major offensive against the Karzai government. The campaign began with skirmishes in northern Helmand and escalated to extensive battles in Kandahar by summer. Despite commanding only about 7,000 soldiers, Dadullah's forces outnumbered the government's military and police presence in the area.
The success of this offensive was partly due to poor planning on the part of the US and the Afghan government. While US commanders in the field were aware of the growing threat, the Bush administration largely ignored their warnings, instead redirecting resources and attention to the newly launched war in Iraq.
By the end of 2006, the Taliban had regained control over large parts of Kandahar and Helmand provinces. This success not only reinvigorated the Taliban as a political movement but also gave them control over the region's lucrative illegal poppy trade, a major economic driver in Afghanistan.
Escalating Insurgency
The Taliban's renewed base of support allowed them to significantly increase their resistance activities. In 2006, they carried out around 5,000 attacks on US and government forces. By 2009, this number had more than doubled to over 11,000 operations.
Moreover, by governing these recaptured regions, the Taliban proved themselves to be a viable political force. They demonstrated an ability to build infrastructure, settle tribal disputes, and even pay salaries to officials and militias. In many ways, they appeared more effective at meeting local needs than the occupying powers or the Karzai government.
The Eastern Front: A Complex Battlefield
While the southern provinces of Afghanistan saw a clear resurgence of Taliban control, the eastern region of the country presented a different set of challenges for US and coalition forces. The eastern front was characterized by:
Harsh terrain: The provinces along the Pakistani border, such as Kunar and Nuristan, feature steep, rocky mountains and densely forested valleys, making military operations extremely difficult.
Diverse ethnic groups: The region is home to various ethnic groups that operated independently and were often hostile to the Pashtun majority in Kabul.
Multiple adversaries: In addition to the Taliban, US forces faced other militant groups such as the Pakistani Taliban, al-Qa'eda remnants, and Hezb Islami.
Operation Mountain Lion
The US-led campaign in the east, known as Operation Mountain Lion, saw American special forces and Afghan troops engaged in fierce combat. The difficult terrain meant that coalition forces often had to fight for every hill, valley, and ridge, frequently without the benefit of air support.
A notable example of the challenges faced in this region occurred on July 13, 2008, near the mountain outpost of Wanat. A brigade of 200 local Nuristani resistance fighters ambushed government forces, resulting in a hours-long battle that left more than 30 soldiers killed or wounded. In the aftermath of this incident, the US military decided to abandon the entire region.
Escalating US Involvement
The setbacks in both the southern and eastern theaters of the war served as a wake-up call for coalition forces. In response, the US steadily increased its troop presence in Afghanistan. By 2008, the number of American soldiers in the country had risen from 20,000 to more than 32,000.
Despite this escalation, progress remained elusive. On September 10, 2008, Mike Mullen, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, gave a sobering assessment to the US Congress, stating, "I'm not sure we're winning."
The Surge: A Temporary Shift in Momentum
Obama's Dilemma
When Barack Obama took office in January 2009, he inherited a war that was not going well. The new president faced a crucial decision regarding the future of the US involvement in Afghanistan. Military leaders, including General David McKiernan, advocated for a strategy known as the Surge, which would involve committing an additional 20,000 troops to the conflict.
After careful consideration and a thorough review of the war's status, Obama approved a modified version of the Surge on February 16, 2009. Initially, an additional 17,000 troops were deployed, with this number growing in the following months.
The New Strategy
The Obama administration's review of the war led to a shift in overall strategy. Rather than aiming for a complete defeat of the Taliban, the new approach sought to use the Surge to disrupt and slow down their advance. The goal was to stabilize the country long enough to transfer complete control to the Afghan government within two years.
General Stanley McChrystal, an experienced commander who had previously served in Iraq, oversaw the initial Surge. The campaign began with 12,000 marines entering the southern province of Helmand. These troops were embedded with local military and police forces to support counter-insurgency operations.
Impact of the Surge
The Surge had significant short-term impacts:
Helmand Province: By 2011, the Taliban were losing control of the region.
Kandahar: Operation Hamkari used a clear-hold-build approach to gradually secure territory around Kandahar City. By fall 2012, the province was more secure than it had been in years.
Temporary reprieve: The strategy successfully halted the Taliban's advance for the duration of the operation.
However, these gains came at a high cost. Thousands of American and Afghan soldiers were killed or wounded, and the US treasury spent nearly $110 billion per year on the effort.
Long-term Effectiveness
The long-term effectiveness of the Surge is debatable. While it did provide a temporary reprieve from Taliban advances, it did not lead to a lasting solution. By the end of 2012, the US was ready to enter peace talks with the Taliban. However, the Taliban, aware of the US's desire to withdraw, were content to simply wait out the American presence.
Local Uprisings: A Double-Edged Sword
While the Taliban enjoyed widespread support in many of the provinces they controlled, their heavy-handed approach to governing also stirred up resentment. By 2012, this resentment was turning into outright armed resistance in some areas.
The Andar Uprising
A notable example of local resistance occurred in the rural Ghazni Province southwest of Kabul. The Andar people, who practice a form of Islam called Sufism, found themselves at odds with the Taliban's austere interpretation of Islamic law. When the Taliban attempted to impose restrictions on Sufi religious practices, the Andar fought back.
Initially scattered and intermittent, the Andar resistance gradually grew into a genuine movement. The government in Kabul took notice and sought to support the uprising by providing arms and backup fighters. Despite initial skepticism, the Andar eventually accepted coalition assistance. For the next few years, this insurgent movement seriously disrupted Taliban operations throughout central Afghanistan.
Government Strength and Weaknesses
By 2014, the Karzai government appeared to be at its strongest point. It had secured more than 20 provinces and commanded a military and police force of over 300,000. However, significant internal problems remained:
Logistical challenges: The government struggled to coordinate the delivery of basic services and supplies.
Corruption: Top officers often used their positions for personal enrichment and to wage petty feuds.
Low morale: Surveys showed that only 10 percent of Afghan forces felt any strong duty or allegiance to the government.
The 2014 Election Crisis
The 2014 presidential election further exposed the vulnerabilities of the Afghan state. With Karzai unable to run due to term limits, there were no clear frontrunners among the ten official candidates. The election was marred by Taliban attacks, low voter turnout, and widespread fraud.
After two rounds of voting failed to produce a clear winner, US officials had to broker a power-sharing agreement between rivals Abdullah Abdullah and Ashraf Ghani. The resulting unity government, with Ghani as president and Abdullah as chief executive officer, would prove to be less stable and legitimate than its predecessor.
The Beginning of the End: 2015-2016
As 2014 rolled into 2015, Afghanistan found itself at another critical juncture, with several factors contributing to a deteriorating situation:
Political instability: The unity government was plagued by rivalry between Ghani and Abdullah, leading to gridlock on important issues like cabinet appointments and economic reforms.
US drawdown: The Obama administration continued to reduce US military presence and financial assistance, which negatively impacted the country's weak economy.
Ongoing Taliban threat: Ceaseless attacks kept the country in a constant state of alert.
Strategic Impasse
During this period, the US found itself at a strategic impasse. Military leaders recognized that defeating the Taliban was nearly impossible, but the White House was reluctant to completely end the occupation. Concerns about appearing weak on terrorism, especially given the rise of the Islamic State, influenced this decision.
As a compromise, Obama maintained a force of around 10,000 troops in the country, primarily to prevent the collapse of the unity government. However, the role of these troops was significantly reduced. US forces were mostly confined to bases, and airstrikes were only to be conducted in extreme circumstances.
Taliban Resurgence
The reduced US support seriously undermined the Afghan military's ability to fend off attacks. In the summer of 2015, the Taliban, under new leader Akhtar Mansour, launched a massive offensive targeting larger cities and provincial capitals. They even managed to briefly capture Kunduz City, a strategic metropolis in northern Afghanistan.
These Taliban victories were facilitated by ongoing morale issues within the Afghan army. Many soldiers viewed their military service merely as a paycheck, and when faced with escalating Taliban attacks, they often deserted. In Kunduz alone, more than 1,000 soldiers abandoned their posts.
The Trump Era: A New Approach and the Path to Withdrawal
Trump's Initial Stance
Donald Trump's presidency brought a new and unpredictable element to the Afghan War. In his first meetings with Secretary of Defense James Mattis and military leaders, Trump expressed frustration with the current state of the conflict, angry that the US was losing control and that it was making him look bad. However, despite his bluster, Trump initially offered no concrete plan for moving forward.
Shifting Strategies
Under Trump's leadership, the US military once again adjusted its approach in Afghanistan:
Troop increase: Despite initial threats to withdraw completely, Trump eventually agreed to commit an additional 4,000 American troops, along with more special forces and diplomatic advisors.
Pressure on Pakistan: The administration increased pressure on Pakistan to combat Taliban activity within its borders.
Focus on Islamic State: Trump took a particular interest in crushing the Islamic State, which had gained a foothold in Afghanistan and was carrying out increasingly violent attacks.
Escalation of Violence
The renewed focus on combating Islamic State led to an escalation in violence. While IS carried out numerous suicide attacks, US forces responded with heavy aerial bombardment. In 2017, the military even dropped an 11-ton "mother of all bombs" on IS compounds.
Path to Peace Talks
Despite the increased military activity, it became clear that the Taliban would not be defeated militarily. They remained firm in their commitment to continue fighting until the US withdrew. In fall 2018, the Trump administration finally decided to pursue peace talks, sending ambassador Zalmay Khalilzad to begin negotiations.
The Taliban's stance in these negotiations was uncompromising. They refused to:
- Work with the Afghan government
- Renounce al-Qa'eda
- Agree to a ceasefire before US withdrawal
The Doha Agreement
On February 29, 2020, the US signed a peace deal known as the Doha Agreement. The key points of this agreement were:
- The Taliban pledged to discourage terror groups from attacking the US.
- The US agreed to completely withdraw its forces within 14 months.
However, the Trump administration failed to meet this withdrawal deadline. It would fall to the incoming Biden administration to oversee the final US retreat from Afghanistan.
The Final Withdrawal and Taliban Takeover
Biden's Decision
Upon taking office, President Joe Biden faced the challenge of how to handle the Afghan withdrawal. After a review of the situation, Biden announced in April 2021 that all US troops would leave Afghanistan by September 11, 2021, the 20th anniversary of the 9/11 attacks.
Rapid Taliban Advance
As US forces began their withdrawal, the Taliban launched a sweeping offensive across the country. To the surprise of many observers, they encountered little resistance from Afghan security forces. City after city fell to the Taliban, often without a fight.
The Fall of Kabul
On August 15, 2021, Taliban forces entered Kabul, effectively taking control of the country. President Ashraf Ghani fled Afghanistan, and the government collapsed. The speed of the Taliban takeover caught the US and its allies off guard, leading to chaotic scenes at Kabul airport as foreign nationals and Afghans who had worked with coalition forces desperately tried to evacuate.
The Final Days
The last two weeks of August saw a massive airlift operation from Kabul airport. US and coalition forces worked around the clock to evacuate as many people as possible. On August 26, a suicide bombing at the airport killed 13 US service members and at least 169 Afghans, highlighting the ongoing security threats.
On August 30, 2021, the last US military plane left Kabul airport, marking the end of America's longest war. The Taliban were once again in control of Afghanistan, bringing the conflict full circle after 20 years of US intervention.
Conclusion: Lessons from America's Longest War
The American War in Afghanistan, spanning nearly two decades, offers numerous lessons for future military engagements and nation-building efforts:
Cultural understanding is crucial: The US struggled to navigate the complex tribal and ethnic dynamics of Afghanistan, often making decisions that inadvertently alienated local populations.
Clear objectives are essential: The mission in Afghanistan shifted over time, from counterterrorism to nation-building to counterinsurgency, leading to confusion and lack of focus.
Local support is key: The failure to build a truly representative and effective Afghan government undermined the entire mission.
Military superiority doesn't guarantee success: Despite overwhelming technological and resource advantages, the US was unable to achieve its strategic goals.
Exit strategies matter: The lack of a clear, long-term plan for withdrawal contributed to the chaotic end of the war.
The limits of nation-building: The experience in Afghanistan highlights the immense challenges involved in trying to rebuild a nation according to external ideals.
The importance of managing public opinion: As the war dragged on, public support in the US waned, influencing political decisions about the conflict.
The American War in Afghanistan will likely be studied for years to come as a complex case study in modern warfare, counterinsurgency, and the limits of military power. Its legacy will continue to shape US foreign policy and military strategy for the foreseeable future.
In the end, despite two decades of effort, thousands of lives lost, and trillions of dollars spent, the United States was unable to achieve its goal of a stable, democratic Afghanistan aligned with US interests. The Taliban's return to power in 2021 brought the conflict full circle, leaving many to question what, if anything, was truly accomplished by America's longest war.