Introduction
Ukraine, a country that has recently been thrust into the global spotlight due to ongoing conflicts with Russia, has a rich and complex history that spans thousands of years. In "The Gates of Europe," historian Serhii Plokhy takes readers on a journey through time, exploring the fascinating and often tumultuous past of this pivotal Eastern European nation.
From its earliest days as a land of nomadic tribes to its current struggle for independence and European integration, Ukraine's story is one of resilience, cultural preservation, and the ongoing quest for self-determination. This book summary will provide an overview of the key events, figures, and themes that have shaped Ukraine's history, offering insights into why this nation continues to play such a crucial role in European and global affairs.
The Ancient Roots of Ukraine
Early Inhabitants and Greek Influence
The story of Ukraine begins in ancient times, with the region first populated by nomadic tribes that roamed the vast steppes north of the Black Sea. These early inhabitants were not isolated, however. They engaged in trade with nearby Greek colonies, establishing some of the earliest connections between what would become Ukraine and the wider European world.
The Greek historian Herodotus, writing around 500 BCE, provides some of the first written accounts of the region. In his work "Histories," Herodotus describes the area as a frontier between the Greek world and the lands of the so-called "Barbarians." This positioning of Ukraine as a borderland between different civilizations would become a recurring theme throughout its history.
The Scythians and Sarmatians
Among the early tribes that inhabited the region were the Scythians, a group of nomadic warriors who became known for their skill in horseback riding and archery. The Scythians were eventually displaced by another nomadic group, the Sarmatians, who were of Iranian origin.
These early inhabitants began to cultivate the rich, black soil of the Ukrainian steppes, laying the foundation for the region's future reputation as the "breadbasket of Europe." The fertility of the land would prove to be both a blessing and a curse for Ukraine, attracting the interest of various powers throughout history.
Roman Interest and the East-West Divide
As the Roman Empire expanded, it too became interested in the region that would become Ukraine. The Romans were particularly focused on the two major rivers of the area: the Dnieper (or Dnipro, as it's known in Ukrainian) and the Don. These waterways were crucial for trade and would continue to play a significant role in Ukraine's development.
The Greek geographer Strabo, writing in the early first century CE, noted that these rivers marked an important dividing line. To the west of the Don lay Europe, while to the east was Asia. This geographic demarcation would foreshadow the cultural and political divisions that would shape Ukraine's future.
The Arrival of the Slavs and the Viking Influence
Slavic Settlement
The sixth century CE saw the arrival of a group that would play a crucial role in Ukrainian history: the Slavs. These semi-nomadic people settled in the region, spreading from the Balkans to the Dnieper River. Linguistic evidence suggests that the ancestral homeland of the Slavs was in the Volhynia and Pripyat regions of what is now northern Ukraine.
The Slavs were described in contemporary writings as tall and ruddy-complexioned. They frequently raided Byzantine outposts, becoming a persistent problem for Emperor Justinian. Their arrival marked the beginning of a new era in the region's history, as they would form the basis of much of Ukraine's cultural and linguistic heritage.
The Khazar Influence
In the late seventh century, a Turkic-speaking tribe known as the Khazars arrived in the region. They made a treaty with the Byzantines and established a period of relative peace. The Khazars set up their westernmost outpost in what would become Kyiv, on the banks of the Dnieper River. Some Slavic tribes continued to live in the area under Khazar control, while Eastern Slavs began to settle down, build fortified villages, and take up agriculture.
The Rus' Vikings and the Birth of Kyivan Rus'
The next major development came with the arrival of the Vikings, representing the kingdom of Rus'. These Norse warriors, a mix of Swedes, Norwegians, and Finns, sailed down the Dnieper River. While known for their raiding, they were also eager to trade. The Rus' Vikings took control of Kyiv from the Khazars, establishing it as their capital and creating what became known as the Kyivan Rus'.
The Kyivan Rus' state, with its capital in Kyiv, became a powerful entity in Eastern Europe. While the ruling class maintained their Viking heritage, the population and culture of Kyivan Rus' was predominantly Slavic. This blend of Norse and Slavic influences would shape the early development of Ukrainian culture and statehood.
The Golden Age of Kyivan Rus'
Prince Volodymyr and the Adoption of Christianity
The Kyivan Rus' reached its zenith under the rule of Prince Volodymyr and his son Yaroslav. Volodymyr made a decision that would have far-reaching consequences for Ukrainian history: he converted to Christianity in the late tenth century. This move aligned the Kyivan Rus' more closely with the Byzantine Empire and brought the region firmly into the orbit of Christian Europe.
Yaroslav the Wise and Cultural Flourishing
Yaroslav, who succeeded his father, became known as "Yaroslav the Wise" due to his efforts to develop and modernize the Kyivan state. He built grand churches and citadels in Kyiv that echoed the architecture of Constantinople, creating a visual link between his realm and the great Byzantine Empire.
Yaroslav also made significant contributions to the legal and cultural development of Kyivan Rus'. He created a code of law known as "Rus' Justice" and promoted literacy based on the Church Slavonic language. This language, which used an alphabet created specifically for translating Greek texts, would become the foundation for the development of Ukrainian, Russian, and Belarusian languages.
European Connections
Yaroslav's influence extended beyond the borders of Kyivan Rus'. He married his sisters and daughters to other European leaders, earning him the nickname "the father-in-law of Europe." These dynastic connections helped to integrate the Kyivan state into the broader European political landscape.
By the end of Yaroslav's reign in the mid-11th century, the Kyivan Rus' had become a legitimate, thriving state, woven into the fabric of Europe. It was a golden age for the region, marked by cultural advancement, political stability, and international recognition.
The Decline of Kyivan Rus' and the Mongol Invasion
Succession Struggles
The death of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054 marked the beginning of a period of decline for the Kyivan Rus'. Despite Yaroslav's attempts to establish a peaceful line of succession, the state fell into a chaotic mess of family rivalries. Between 1132 and 1169, no fewer than 18 different rulers claimed the throne of Kyiv.
This period of instability weakened the Kyivan state and made it vulnerable to outside threats. It also led to a shift in the center of power away from Kyiv itself. In 1169, the army of Prince Andrei Bogoliubsky plundered Kyiv and emerged victorious. Significantly, Bogoliubsky moved his base of operations to the eastern city of Vladimir, in what is now Russia. This eastward shift of power would have long-lasting implications for the region.
The Mongol Invasion
The weakened state of the Kyivan Rus' made it an easy target for the Mongol invasion in the mid-13th century. The Mongols conquered Kyiv in 1240, effectively ending the era of Kyivan Rus' as a unified state. The Mongols divided the former Kyivan lands into two principalities, recognizing the growing east-west divide in the region.
This division would have long-lasting effects on Ukrainian history. The eastern region remained under Mongol control until the end of the 15th century, while the western areas came under the influence of other powers, particularly Poland and Lithuania.
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Rise of the Cossacks
The Union of Lublin
A significant development in Ukrainian history came in 1569 with the Union of Lublin, which created the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This new political entity encompassed much of what is now Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltic states, as well as Poland and Lithuania.
Within the Commonwealth, the Ukrainian lands were largely controlled by Polish Catholic nobility, while the majority of the population remained Orthodox and increasingly resentful of their rulers. This period also saw the rise of serfdom, with Ukrainian peasants being forced to work for Polish landowners.
The Emergence of the Cossacks
It was in this context that the Cossacks emerged as a significant force in Ukrainian history. The Cossacks were originally nomadic people who settled in the steppes north of the Black Sea. They developed a reputation as fierce warriors and defenders against Ottoman raids.
As more Ukrainian peasants and townsfolk joined their ranks to escape serfdom, the Cossacks became a predominantly Ukrainian force. In the 1570s, they were officially recognized by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as a military force tasked with protecting the borderlands.
Cossack Uprisings and the Hetmanate
The Cossacks, however, were not content to simply serve as border guards. Resentful of the Polish nobility and their treatment of Ukrainian peasants, they launched a series of uprisings against the Commonwealth. The most significant of these was the Grand Revolt of 1648, led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky.
The revolt was initially successful, with Khmelnytsky's forces defeating the Polish army. However, the lack of clear leadership after this victory led to chaos, with widespread violence against landowners, Catholic priests, and Jewish communities.
In the aftermath of the revolt, the Cossacks were granted three eastern palatinates to rule independently from the Commonwealth. This region, known as the Hetmanate (named after the Cossack term for leader, "hetman"), became the first semblance of an independent Ukrainian state since the fall of Kyivan Rus'.
Ukraine Between Empires
The Partition of Ukraine
The independent Cossack state, however, was short-lived. Caught between the expanding powers of Poland and Russia, the Hetmanate struggled to maintain its autonomy. In 1667, the region was once again divided along the Dnieper River, with the western half aligning with Poland and the eastern half with Russia.
This division reflected a recurring theme in Ukrainian history: the country's position as a borderland between competing powers. The eastern and western halves of Ukraine would develop somewhat differently under their respective rulers, contributing to regional differences that persist to this day.
The Decline of the Commonwealth and the Rise of Russia
As the 18th century progressed, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth began to weaken, while Russia grew increasingly powerful under leaders like Peter the Great and Catherine the Great. This shift in the balance of power had significant implications for Ukraine.
In a series of partitions in the late 18th century, the Commonwealth was divided among Russia, Austria, and Prussia. As a result, Russia gained control over much of what is now central and eastern Ukraine, while Austria took control of the western region of Galicia.
Ukraine Under Russian Rule
Under Russian rule, Ukraine faced increasing pressure to assimilate into Russian culture. The Ukrainian language was suppressed, and the autonomy of the Cossack Hetmanate was gradually eroded. Catherine the Great formally abolished the Hetmanate in 1764 and incorporated its territories directly into the Russian Empire.
At the same time, Russia expanded its control southward, annexing Crimea in 1783 and pushing the Ottomans out of the northern Black Sea coast. This expansion brought the entire Dnieper basin under Russian control and opened up new areas for settlement and economic development.
The 19th Century: National Awakening and Cultural Revival
The Impact of Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century had far-reaching effects across Europe, including in Ukraine. The wars stirred nationalist sentiments among many European peoples, including Ukrainians. This period saw the beginnings of a Ukrainian cultural revival, with writers and intellectuals starting to publish works in the Ukrainian language.
Ukrainian Literature and Cultural Identity
The 19th century saw a flowering of Ukrainian literature and culture. Writers like Taras Shevchenko, Ivan Franko, and Lesya Ukrainka produced works that celebrated Ukrainian history, folklore, and language. These cultural figures played a crucial role in developing and preserving a distinct Ukrainian national identity, even as the country remained divided between empires.
The Emancipation of the Serfs and Social Changes
The emancipation of the serfs in the Russian Empire in 1861 brought significant social changes to Ukraine. While the reform freed peasants from their obligations to landowners, it also disrupted traditional rural social structures and led to increased urbanization and industrialization.
Political Movements and the Growth of Nationalism
The latter half of the 19th century saw the growth of various political movements in Ukraine. Some advocated for greater autonomy within the Russian Empire, while others began to call for outright independence. These movements were often suppressed by the imperial authorities, but they laid the groundwork for future struggles for Ukrainian statehood.
World War I and the Ukrainian Revolution
Ukraine During World War I
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 placed Ukraine in a difficult position. With Ukrainian lands divided between the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires, Ukrainians found themselves fighting on both sides of the conflict. The war brought immense suffering to Ukraine, with its territory becoming a major battleground between the opposing forces.
The Collapse of Empires and the Ukrainian People's Republic
The Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent collapse of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires created an opportunity for Ukrainian independence. In March 1917, Ukrainian political leaders established the Central Rada (Council) in Kyiv and declared the formation of the Ukrainian People's Republic.
Civil War and Foreign Intervention
The period following World War I was marked by intense conflict in Ukraine. The Ukrainian People's Republic faced challenges from Bolshevik forces, the White Army (which sought to restore the Russian Empire), and Polish forces seeking to expand their territory. This period, known as the Ukrainian War of Independence, saw rapidly shifting alliances and control over different parts of the country.
The Soviet Takeover
Despite initial successes, the Ukrainian People's Republic was ultimately unable to maintain its independence. By 1921, most of Ukraine had come under the control of the Bolsheviks and was incorporated into the newly formed Soviet Union as the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.
Ukraine in the Soviet Union
Ukrainization and Cultural Renaissance
The early years of Soviet rule saw a policy of "Ukrainization," which encouraged the use of the Ukrainian language and the development of Ukrainian culture. This period saw a brief flowering of Ukrainian literature, art, and scholarship. However, this relatively liberal policy was short-lived.
Collectivization and the Holodomor
In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of forced collectivization of agriculture. This policy had devastating effects in Ukraine, leading to widespread famine known as the Holodomor. Millions of Ukrainians died of starvation in 1932-33, in what many historians consider an act of genocide against the Ukrainian people.
The Great Terror and Russification
The 1930s also saw the Great Terror, a period of intense political repression and purges. Many Ukrainian intellectuals, artists, and political figures were arrested, exiled, or executed. This was followed by a policy of Russification, which sought to suppress Ukrainian culture and language in favor of Russian.
World War II and Nazi Occupation
World War II brought further devastation to Ukraine. The country was occupied by Nazi Germany from 1941 to 1944, resulting in millions of deaths and widespread destruction. The Nazi occupation was particularly brutal, with the Jewish population suffering greatly in the Holocaust.
Post-War Soviet Ukraine
After the war, Ukraine remained a part of the Soviet Union. While it experienced economic growth and industrialization, it also continued to face cultural and political repression. The use of the Ukrainian language was discouraged, and expressions of Ukrainian nationalism were suppressed.
The Road to Independence
Chernobyl Disaster and Its Impact
A pivotal moment in recent Ukrainian history was the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986. The Soviet government's mishandling of the catastrophe, including its initial attempts to cover up the extent of the danger, fueled growing discontent with Soviet rule in Ukraine.
Glasnost and Perestroika
The policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) introduced by Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s allowed for greater freedom of expression and political activity in Ukraine. This period saw a resurgence of Ukrainian cultural and political movements.
Declaration of Independence
As the Soviet Union began to unravel, Ukraine declared its independence on August 24, 1991. This declaration was overwhelmingly supported in a referendum held on December 1, 1991. With the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union later that month, Ukraine became an independent state for the first time in modern history.
Independent Ukraine: Challenges and Aspirations
Economic Struggles and Political Instability
The early years of independence were marked by significant economic challenges as Ukraine transitioned from a Soviet-style planned economy to a market-based system. The country also experienced political instability, with power shifting between different factions and ongoing struggles against corruption.
The Orange Revolution
A significant moment in Ukraine's post-Soviet history was the Orange Revolution of 2004-2005. This series of protests and political events was triggered by allegations of fraud in the 2004 presidential election. The Orange Revolution resulted in a re-run of the election and marked a turn towards more democratic governance in Ukraine.
European Aspirations and Russian Influence
Since independence, Ukraine has sought closer ties with the European Union and other Western institutions. However, this westward orientation has been complicated by Ukraine's historical and economic ties to Russia. The tension between these competing influences has been a defining feature of Ukrainian politics in the 21st century.
The Euromaidan and Russian Annexation of Crimea
In late 2013 and early 2014, Ukraine experienced another period of upheaval known as the Euromaidan or the Revolution of Dignity. These protests were sparked by then-President Viktor Yanukovych's decision to suspend plans for signing an association agreement with the European Union.
The Euromaidan protests led to the ousting of Yanukovych, but also precipitated a crisis in Ukraine's relations with Russia. In February 2014, Russia annexed the Crimean Peninsula, which had been part of Ukraine since 1954. This action was widely condemned by the international community and marked the beginning of a new period of tension between Ukraine and Russia.
Ongoing Conflict in Eastern Ukraine
Following the annexation of Crimea, a conflict broke out in eastern Ukraine between Ukrainian government forces and Russia-backed separatists. This conflict, which has been ongoing since 2014, has resulted in thousands of deaths and displaced over a million people. It has also strained Ukraine's economy and complicated its efforts at reform and European integration.
Ukraine's Current Situation and Future Prospects
Continued Push for Reforms
Despite the ongoing conflict in the east, Ukraine has continued to pursue political and economic reforms. The country has made efforts to combat corruption, improve governance, and modernize its economy. These efforts have been supported by Western countries and international institutions, although progress has often been slower than many Ukrainians would like.
Balancing Act Between East and West
Ukraine continues to navigate a delicate balance between its aspirations for closer integration with the West and its historical and economic ties to Russia. This balancing act is complicated by ongoing tensions with Russia and internal divisions within Ukraine itself.
Cultural Renaissance and National Identity
The years since independence have seen a resurgence of Ukrainian culture and language. There has been a renewed interest in Ukrainian history and traditions, and efforts to promote the use of the Ukrainian language in public life. This cultural renaissance has played an important role in shaping modern Ukrainian national identity.
Challenges and Opportunities
Ukraine faces significant challenges as it moves forward. These include resolving the conflict in the east, combating corruption, modernizing its economy, and navigating its relationships with both Russia and the West. At the same time, the country has significant potential, with a well-educated population, rich natural resources, and a strategic location between Europe and Asia.
Conclusion
The history of Ukraine, as detailed in "The Gates of Europe," is a complex tapestry of different cultures, empires, and ideologies. From its origins as a land of nomadic tribes to its current status as an independent nation striving for European integration, Ukraine has always been a crossroads between East and West.
Throughout its history, Ukraine has faced numerous challenges, including invasions, partitions, and periods of cultural suppression. Yet through it all, the Ukrainian people have maintained a distinct identity and a desire for self-determination. The preservation of Ukrainian language, culture, and traditions, even in the face of efforts to suppress them, is a testament to the resilience of the Ukrainian people.
Today, Ukraine stands at another crucial juncture in its history. The country continues to grapple with the legacy of its Soviet past, ongoing tensions with Russia, and the challenges of modernization and reform. At the same time, it is working to forge closer ties with Europe and to establish itself as a modern, democratic state.
The story of Ukraine, as Plokhy presents it, is far from over. As the country continues to navigate its path forward, it does so with a rich historical legacy and a population that has repeatedly demonstrated its commitment to preserving its unique identity and pursuing its aspirations for the future. Understanding this complex history is crucial for anyone seeking to comprehend Ukraine's current situation and its potential future trajectories.
In the end, "The Gates of Europe" reminds us that Ukraine's story is not just about a single nation, but about the broader currents of European and world history. As a borderland between different civilizations and power blocs, Ukraine's fate has often been intertwined with larger geopolitical struggles. Yet through it all, the Ukrainian people have maintained their distinct identity and their dream of self-determination.
As Ukraine continues to face challenges and opportunities in the 21st century, its long and complex history provides both lessons and inspiration. The resilience, cultural richness, and persistent quest for self-determination that have characterized Ukraine's past will undoubtedly continue to shape its future. Understanding this history is key to appreciating the complexities of modern Ukraine and its place in the world today.