The Great Mental Models Volume 2

Why do some ideas, practices, and materials endure while others fade away? The sciences offer fascinating explanations.

1. The Force of Societal Mass

The concept of mass in physics explains how societal changes often face inertia. Just as it takes significant energy to move a heavy object, deeply ingrained customs or materials require tremendous effort to alter.

For example, absinthe, a relatively new drink in the early 20th century, faced widespread opposition after a series of exaggerated claims linked it to madness and murder. It was banned quickly. In contrast, lead – proven toxic for centuries – was widely ignored despite its dangers, as society had built infrastructure and industries around its use. Changing this would have required monumental effort.

This concept mirrors physical inertia: changing the course of long-used materials like lead faced massive resistance due to their societal "weight." Absinthe, having less societal mass, was banned with relative ease.

Examples

• Physicist Vitruvius warned about lead in water pipes as far back as 15 BCE, but its use persisted due to its integration into everyday life.
• Alice Hamilton presented evidence about lead's dangers in the 1910s, yet regulations lagged behind.
• Absinthe, a less essential commodity, was swiftly outlawed with minimal resistance.

2. The Survival of the Useful

Natural selection applies beyond nature; traits and traditions that prove useful are passed down, while those that don't fall away. Understanding this principle can shed light on history and culture.

Zebras, for instance, are fast because slow ones didn’t survive long enough to reproduce. An equivalent phenomenon happened with languages. Latin spread across the Roman Empire due to its utility for commerce and governance. Following the empire's collapse, Latin gave way to simpler Romance languages like Italian and Spanish, which were more user-friendly for ordinary people.

This highlights that adaptability ensures longevity, whether it's in animals or cultural practices.

Examples

• Latin retained importance for scholars but evolved into dialects better suited to everyday communication.
• Post-Black Death scenarios in Europe saw new labor-saving devices emerge as workers filled gaps left by population loss.
• The zebra population’s speed increased over generations as slower ancestors were preyed upon.

3. Early Adopters Win the Game

Adapting early to changing conditions often gives a significant advantage. This principle, seen in animal species, also explains human successes and failures in history.

The industrial soot covering trees during the Industrial Revolution turned light-colored peppered moths into easy prey. Black moths thrived and took over. Similarly, General Guderian’s early adoption of innovative tank strategies helped Germany’s blitzkrieg overpower France in World War II. In contrast, French leaders were ill-prepared, relying on outdated trench warfare methods.

Being the first to adjust to new environments or technologies often determines survival and dominance.

Examples

• Black-colored moths thrived after soot darkened tree trunks, making lighter moths vulnerable.
• Germany's adoption of mobile armor divisions led to rapid victories in early WWII.
• France's reliance on the inflexible Maginot Line left them unable to repel Germany's fast offensives.

4. Catalysts Spark Rapid Transformation

In both chemistry and society, catalysts drive faster changes. They don’t cause change directly but reduce the time required for reactions to occur.

The Black Death, for instance, acted as a catalyst for a series of societal shifts in Europe. Labor shortages forced higher wages, which increased individual purchasing power. This shift helped usher in the Renaissance, a period of remarkable cultural and economic development.

Catalysts reduce hurdles, making pre-existing potential change happen more quickly and on a larger scale.

Examples

• The printing press accelerated knowledge dissemination during the Renaissance.
• The Black Death created labor challenges that shifted economies and social systems.
• Yeast, as a chemical catalyst, allowed for breakthroughs in bread-making and alcohol fermentation.

5. Knowledge is an Alloy

Like metals, knowledge becomes more powerful when it is combined. An alloy is stronger than its individual components, and the same applies to wisdom and skill.

Leonardo da Vinci sought expertise from varied fields to strengthen his understanding of the world. This interdisciplinary mindset allowed him to innovate across disciplines, from art to engineering. Similarly, driving requires a mix of theoretical knowledge, practical craft, intuition, and prudence, all combining to create a masterful skill set.

Blending different types of knowledge can create results that exceed the sum of their parts.

Examples

• Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, provided unmatched durability in tools and weapons.
• Leonardo da Vinci’s multidisciplinary approach made him more ingenious and versatile.
• Driving a car requires blending road knowledge, technical skills, intuition, and foresight.

6. Reciprocity in Physics and Life

Newton’s third law teaches us that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. This idea, although primarily about motion, has a symbolic parallel in human interactions and acts of service.

Norman Bethune, a generous doctor, dedicated his life to helping others, often at great personal cost. This act of giving, though it didn’t elevate his fame, returned an intrinsic reward. Scientific studies back this – volunteering and altruistic actions increase personal happiness and life satisfaction.

While moral reciprocity isn’t guaranteed, giving often reciprocates through personal well-being and emotional fulfillment.

Examples

• Newton’s third law explains actions like jumping or firing a gun.
• Bethune’s work in China and Spain had broad, long-lasting impacts despite his short life.
• Modern studies link volunteering to improved mental and physical health.

7. Hierarchy is Natural but Not Unchangeable

Most animals and humans live within hierarchies. These systems can secure stability but at the cost of fairness and equality. However, human societies show the ability to redefine hierarchies and choose better leaders.

The French Revolution demonstrated rebellion against rigid structures. Peasants overthrew a monarchic system but later saw Napoleon rise to power, replacing one hierarchy with another. This shows the challenge is not in eliminating hierarchy but in shaping leadership to align with just and effective governance.

Innovative and more inclusive leadership can transform hierarchies into tools for progress.

Examples

• Chickens organize themselves in pecking orders, often resembling human hierarchies.
• The French Revolution temporarily dismantled monarchy-level hierarchies.
• Napoleon’s rule showed how old systems often return if effective alternatives aren’t built.

8. Social Changes Mirror Physics Principles

Inertia, a principle in physics, reflects how long-standing systems resist change. Whether it’s societal structures or harmful habits, overcoming them requires intentional effort.

For instance, the use of water pipes made of lead persisted for centuries due to embedded systems that relied on lead. Displacing it would have disrupted too much at once. Similarly, societies show a tendency to adapt only when the effort to change becomes unavoidable.

The resistance to change is often proportional to how deeply embedded something is in daily life.

Examples

• Lead in infrastructure persisted due to its widespread and historical importance.
• Societal inertia slowed women's suffrage until overwhelming movements broke through barriers.
• Large corporations take significant effort to switch to environmentally friendly practices due to entrenched methods.

9. Understand the Fragility of Progress

While technology and knowledge can advance societies, they also depend on maintaining stability. The Renaissance thrived on expanded learning and commerce but relied on avoiding backslides into destructive conflict.

After the Renaissance brought progress, political and economic turmoil repeatedly challenged European societies. Recognizing fragility helps prioritize sustained development without complacency in leadership, values, or processes.

Progress is not permanent; it requires continual reinforcement to maintain.

Examples

• The fall of Rome disrupted progress made during its rule.
• The Renaissance benefitted from technological catalysts, yet many areas reverted to traditional structures later.
• Collapse of colonial empires sparked struggles that often undid established advancements.

Takeaways

1. Regularly review established systems or practices in your life to challenge inertia and introduce positive changes, whether in personal habits or larger processes.
2. Combine knowledge from multiple disciplines to strengthen your decision-making and innovation. Learn broadly to create your personal "alloy" of skills.
3. Seek leaders who listen and adapt rather than imposing rigid, outdated ideas. Advocate for systems that reward inclusivity and collaboration over competition.