Liberty is a concept that has fascinated philosophers and thinkers for centuries. But what exactly is liberty, and why has it been so elusive throughout human history? In "The Narrow Corridor," authors Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson explore these questions, offering a compelling framework for understanding the delicate balance required for liberty to flourish.
At its core, the authors argue that liberty means freedom from violence, intimidation, and domination. In a truly free society, people can make their own choices about how to live without fear of punishment or reprisal. While this may seem like a universal desire, the reality is that liberty has been rare and difficult to achieve throughout history.
The central thesis of the book is that liberty requires a constant and evolving synergy between state and society. This balance is challenging to establish and even harder to maintain over time. The authors describe the path to liberty as a "narrow corridor" that societies must navigate, with dangers on either side.
As we journey through history and across cultures, we'll explore why some societies have achieved liberty while others have failed. We'll examine the different types of states that can emerge and the societal factors that shape them. Along the way, we'll encounter fascinating stories and examples that bring these complex ideas to life.
The Gilgamesh Problem and the Narrow Corridor
To understand the challenge of achieving liberty, we must first grapple with what the authors call the "Gilgamesh problem." This concept is derived from one of the world's oldest surviving texts, the Epic of Gilgamesh, which tells the story of a tyrannical king who oppresses his people.
The Gilgamesh problem asks: How can we control the power and authority of the state so that it benefits rather than oppresses society? This is the fundamental tension at the heart of liberty.
In the epic, the god Anu attempts to solve this problem by creating a counterpart to Gilgamesh named Enkidu, hoping to balance out the king's power. However, this solution fails when Gilgamesh and Enkidu become friends and conspire together, eliminating any checks on their authority.
This story illustrates a crucial point: liberty requires a delicate balance between state power and societal mobilization. If the state becomes too strong, it leads to despotism. If it's too weak, violence and lawlessness prevail. The space between these extremes is what the authors call the "narrow corridor" to liberty.
The corridor metaphor is apt because achieving liberty is a long, drawn-out process. Governments and institutions aren't created overnight, and maintaining the right balance is an ongoing challenge. The corridor is narrow because it's difficult to restrain a powerful state while also keeping members of society working together rather than tearing each other apart.
The Importance of a Strong Central Government
To understand why a strong central government is necessary for liberty, we need only look at examples of societies without one. The authors describe the chaotic conditions in 1994 Nigeria under military dictatorship, where cities like Lagos descended into near-anarchy. With no functional government providing basic services or maintaining order, violence and lawlessness reigned.
This state of affairs is what philosopher Thomas Hobbes called "Warre" - a condition where every person is pitted against every other person, and fear dominates all aspects of life. Hobbes argued that to escape this state, societies need a powerful central authority he called the "Leviathan."
The authors agree with Hobbes that a strong state is necessary to establish order and create the conditions for liberty. However, they recognize that not all powerful states are created equal. They identify three types of Leviathans:
The Absent Leviathan: A weak or nonexistent central state that cannot control violence or provide basic services.
The Despotic Leviathan: An all-powerful state that dominates and subjugates society.
The Shackled Leviathan: A strong state that is balanced and checked by a mobilized society, creating the conditions for liberty.
The key insight is that while a strong central government is necessary for liberty, it's not sufficient on its own. The type of Leviathan matters enormously.
The Red Queen Effect and the Shackled Leviathan
To understand how societies can achieve the ideal of a Shackled Leviathan, we need to examine the concept of the "Red Queen effect." This idea, named after a scene in Lewis Carroll's "Through the Looking-Glass," describes a situation where two parties are constantly evolving and adapting in response to each other, but neither gains a lasting advantage.
In the context of liberty, the Red Queen effect occurs when state power and societal mobilization are in balance, with neither able to dominate the other. This creates a dynamic equilibrium that allows for the emergence of liberty.
The authors use the example of ancient Athens to illustrate how this can work in practice. Under the reforms of Solon, Athens created a system where citizens were empowered to participate in politics and hold elites accountable, while also establishing a state with the authority to enforce laws and resolve conflicts.
This balance didn't happen overnight, but over time, it allowed Athens to enter the narrow corridor and achieve a degree of liberty that was rare in the ancient world. The mobilized citizenry could check state power, while the state had the capacity to maintain order and provide essential services.
The Shackled Leviathan that emerged in Athens represents the ideal form of government for fostering liberty. It's strong enough to perform necessary functions but constrained enough to prevent tyranny. Achieving this balance is the key challenge for any society seeking to enter and remain in the narrow corridor of liberty.
The Cage of Norms and Absent Leviathans
While the benefits of liberty might seem obvious, some societies remain stuck with weak or nonexistent central governments, known as Absent Leviathans. To understand why, we need to examine the concept of the "cage of norms."
The cage of norms refers to rigid cultural practices and traditions that can act as a dominating force over a group of people. When these norms are strong enough, they can prevent the emergence of a central state and keep a society locked in an Absent Leviathan situation.
The authors use the example of the Tiv people in rural Nigeria to illustrate this concept. The Tiv have a highly egalitarian society with no chiefs or class of elites. When British colonial rulers attempted to impose a system of indirect rule by appointing chiefs, the Tiv resisted through cultural means, including the emergence of a cult that accused would-be leaders of dark practices.
This resistance wasn't arbitrary - it was rooted in Tiv norms that had evolved specifically to prevent the emergence of political hierarchy. Their deep suspicion of anyone seeking power made it impossible for the Red Queen effect to take hold and for a Shackled Leviathan to emerge.
The cage of norms can be a powerful force keeping societies outside the narrow corridor of liberty. It shows that cultural factors, not just economic or geographic ones, play a crucial role in shaping political systems and the prospects for liberty.
The Messy Reality of the Red Queen Effect
While the concept of the Red Queen effect and the Shackled Leviathan might sound ideal in theory, the reality is often messy and imperfect. The authors use the example of the United States to illustrate this point.
The U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights represented an attempt to create a Shackled Leviathan, centralizing power while still protecting individual liberties. However, to get all states to ratify these documents, compromises had to be made - including allowing the continuation of slavery.
This compromise had far-reaching consequences, depriving a significant portion of the population of their liberty and creating lasting inequalities. It demonstrates that the Red Queen effect often operates in favor of those with the loudest political voices and most influence, potentially excluding disadvantaged groups.
The result is a political system that doesn't always work for everyone. For instance, inadequate law enforcement in poor urban areas has led to high rates of violence and associated mental health issues. The heavy constraints on central government power also mean that the state isn't always able to provide effective solutions to problems like healthcare or infrastructure.
These examples show that even when a society manages to enter the narrow corridor, maintaining liberty and ensuring it benefits all members of society remains an ongoing challenge. The Red Queen effect is a constant balancing act, and the results are rarely perfect.
Despotic Leviathans and Economic Growth
While Absent Leviathans struggle to provide basic services or maintain order, Despotic Leviathans present a different set of challenges. These all-powerful states can dominate and oppress their own people, creating a state-sponsored version of the "Warre" that Hobbes described.
The authors use the example of China under Mao Zedong to illustrate the horrors that can occur under a Despotic Leviathan. The Chinese Communist Party systematized violence to achieve its goals, including the establishment of "reeducation" camps where prisoners were subjected to torture and forced labor. Shockingly, this system continues in China today, with hundreds of thousands of people detained without due process.
Given these oppressive conditions, one might assume that Despotic Leviathans are always economically disastrous. However, the reality is more complex. Despotic states can sometimes achieve what the authors call "despotic growth" - economic expansion under authoritarian rule.
This is possible because Despotic Leviathans often have organizational structures, laws, public services, and education systems designed to foster economic activity. In China's case, this has led to significant economic growth over the past few decades.
However, despotic growth has major limitations. The state's untrustworthiness and ability to manipulate the economy at will means that property rights are insecure, discouraging investment and innovation. Rampant corruption, a result of unchecked state power, contributes to an unstable and opaque economic environment.
The key takeaway is that while Despotic Leviathans can achieve some economic growth, it's not sustainable in the long term. More importantly, economic growth alone does not equate to liberty. True liberty requires both economic prosperity and freedom from state oppression - a combination that only the Shackled Leviathan can provide.
The Power of the Cage of Norms
We've seen how the cage of norms can keep societies locked in an Absent Leviathan state, but its influence extends far beyond that. Even in societies with strong central governments, a restrictive cage of norms can severely impede the development of liberty and economic prosperity.
India serves as a powerful example of this phenomenon. Despite being the world's largest democracy with a history of widespread societal participation, India remains outside the narrow corridor of liberty. The culprit? The caste system, a set of rigid social norms that divides the population into status groups affecting everything from job prospects to marriage opportunities.
Unlike with the Tiv, India's cage of norms didn't prevent the emergence of political hierarchy. However, it stands as a major obstacle to economic prosperity and social mobility. The caste system effectively locks people into certain professions based on their birth, leading to a massive waste of talent and potential.
This misallocation of jobs impedes innovation and economic growth. Moreover, the resulting fragmented society struggles to collectively push for reforms, further entrenching the status quo. In this way, the cage of norms in India impedes the Red Queen effect, preventing the balance between state and society necessary for liberty to flourish.
The case of Saudi Arabia shows how the cage of norms can be weaponized by a Despotic Leviathan. There, a strict interpretation of Islamic law is used to legitimize state actions and keep citizens in line. The state co-opts religious authorities to issue rulings that support its decisions, creating a powerful tool for maintaining control.
These examples illustrate how the cage of norms can be a formidable obstacle to liberty, even in societies with strong central governments. Overcoming these cultural barriers is often as challenging as building state capacity or mobilizing society.
Paper Leviathans: The Worst of Both Worlds
So far, we've explored Absent Leviathans with weak states, and Despotic Leviathans with overpowering ones. But there's a third category that combines the worst aspects of both: the Paper Leviathan.
Paper Leviathans have the outward appearance of modern states, with institutions and administrative structures that seem legitimate. However, behind this facade, these institutions are incapable of effectively regulating the economy or enforcing laws. At the same time, society remains unmobilized and lacks the power to check state authority.
The authors use Argentina as an example of a Paper Leviathan. They describe the Kafkaesque process of trying to access welfare programs, where citizens are sent in endless loops of bureaucracy with no real hope of receiving assistance. This demonstrates how Paper Leviathans fail to provide basic services despite having the apparent structures to do so.
Paper Leviathans are particularly common in Latin America and Africa, often as a legacy of European colonization. Colonial powers frequently chose to rule indirectly through local elites, appointing few administrators and providing no mechanisms for societal input. This left behind paper-thin states with little capacity and societies with no experience in controlling their institutions.
In Paper Leviathans, political elites dominate the government, often appointing friends and family to positions rather than qualified individuals. However, unlike in Despotic Leviathans, these elites don't engage in overt oppression. This allows them to maintain power without risking the mobilization of opposition that might threaten their position.
The result is a lose-lose situation: a disempowered society combined with a weak state. The Red Queen effect is nowhere to be seen, leaving these nations stuck outside the narrow corridor of liberty, unable to provide for their citizens or foster economic growth.
Factors Affecting Entry into the Narrow Corridor
While entering the narrow corridor is challenging for any society, it's not impossible. History provides examples of Absent, Despotic, and Paper Leviathans transforming into more democratic and liberal states. Understanding the factors that influence this transition is crucial for societies aspiring to achieve liberty.
The authors use South Africa's transition from apartheid to democracy as a case study. During apartheid, South Africa was firmly outside the corridor, with a Despotic Leviathan oppressing the majority of its population. Yet by 1994, it had established a democratic system and begun taking steps toward liberty.
One key factor in South Africa's transition was the ability to form broad coalitions opposing the ruling elite. Apartheid laws had created a huge class of displaced Black laborers, benefiting agricultural and mining elites but hurting industrialists who needed skilled workers. This division among elites created an opportunity for the African National Congress (ANC) and the Black middle class to form alliances with industrialists, eventually leading to the dismantling of the apartheid regime.
This example illustrates that for Despotic Leviathans, the path to the corridor often involves mobilizing and strengthening society to balance state power. For Absent Leviathans, the opposite is true - the state must be strengthened to provide necessary services. Paper Leviathans face the most challenging path, needing to strengthen both state and society simultaneously.
Other factors can affect the shape and accessibility of the corridor itself. For instance, labor coercion (such as slavery or serfdom) tends to widen the gap between elites and non-elites, making it harder to achieve the balance necessary for liberty. Economic factors, technological changes, and international influences can all play a role in shaping a society's path toward or away from the corridor.
Understanding these factors is crucial not just for societies outside the corridor, but also for those within it. As we'll see, maintaining liberty is an ongoing challenge, and societies can fall out of the corridor if they fail to adapt to changing circumstances.
The Dangers of Polarization
Even societies that have successfully entered the narrow corridor of liberty are not guaranteed to stay there. One of the most significant threats to liberty in established democracies is polarization, which can disrupt the Red Queen effect and potentially lead to a loss of liberty.
The authors use the rise of the Nazi party in Germany as a stark example of how polarization can undermine democracy. In 1928, the Nazis were a fringe party with little support. But by 1932, they had become the largest party in the Reichstag. How did this happen?
The Weimar Republic, Germany's post-World War I democracy, was characterized by an active, mobilized population. However, this increasing societal power made elites uncomfortable, particularly with the rise of left-wing, Marxist groups calling for revolution. In response, many elites began to support more authoritarian options, including the Nazi party.
This polarization wasn't limited to elites versus non-elites. Left-wing parties struggled to find common ground, and even in small towns, citizens began separating into insular political and religious communities. With no moderate voices able to unite the warring factions, the Red Queen effect became a zero-sum game, providing an opportunity for the Nazis to seize power.
The German example shows how polarization can turn the healthy competition of the Red Queen effect into a destructive force. When different segments of society see each other as existential threats rather than legitimate political opponents, it becomes impossible to maintain the balance necessary for liberty.
This lesson remains relevant today. In many democracies, we see increasing polarization along political, economic, and cultural lines. Social media and partisan news sources can create echo chambers that reinforce existing beliefs and demonize opposing views. If left unchecked, this polarization can erode the foundations of democracy and push societies out of the narrow corridor.
The key takeaway is that democracy and liberty are never truly safe. Even societies with long traditions of freedom must work continuously to maintain the delicate balance between state and society, and to foster the dialogue and compromise necessary for the Red Queen effect to function properly.
The Ongoing Challenge of Liberty
As we've seen throughout this exploration of "The Narrow Corridor," achieving and maintaining liberty is an ongoing challenge that requires constant effort and adaptation. The balance between state and society that characterizes the Shackled Leviathan is not a static condition, but a dynamic process that must evolve in response to changing circumstances.
This understanding has several important implications:
No society is guaranteed to remain in the corridor: Even countries with long traditions of democracy and liberty can fall out of the corridor if they fail to address emerging challenges or allow polarization to undermine the Red Queen effect.
Cultural factors matter: The cage of norms can be a powerful force either supporting or impeding liberty. Societies must find ways to evolve their cultural norms to support the balance necessary for liberty without losing their unique identities.
Economic prosperity alone is not enough: While economic growth can occur under various types of Leviathans, true liberty requires both economic prosperity and political freedom. Despotic growth is not a sustainable path to liberty.
Inclusivity is crucial: For the Red Queen effect to work properly, all segments of society must be able to participate in the political process. Exclusion or marginalization of certain groups weakens the balance and can lead to instability.
Institutions matter, but so does societal engagement: Strong institutions are necessary for a functioning state, but they must be paired with an engaged and mobilized society to create the checks and balances necessary for liberty.
The path to liberty is not linear: Societies may move in and out of the corridor over time, and progress toward liberty can be reversed if not vigilantly maintained.
Global context matters: In an interconnected world, international influences can affect a society's ability to enter or remain in the corridor. Both positive examples and negative pressures from other nations can shape a country's path.
Conclusion
"The Narrow Corridor" offers a compelling framework for understanding the complex interplay between state and society that gives rise to liberty. By examining historical examples and contemporary case studies, the authors illuminate the challenges and opportunities facing societies as they strive for freedom and prosperity.
The central metaphor of the narrow corridor serves as a powerful reminder that liberty is not an end state, but a continuous journey. Societies must navigate this corridor, constantly adjusting the balance between state power and societal mobilization to maintain the conditions necessary for liberty to flourish.
For societies outside the corridor, the path to liberty may seem daunting. Whether dealing with an Absent Leviathan, a Despotic Leviathan, or a Paper Leviathan, the challenges are significant. However, understanding the dynamics at play and the factors that can influence a society's trajectory can help inform strategies for positive change.
For those within the corridor, the message is clear: liberty cannot be taken for granted. The forces of polarization, economic inequality, and cultural division can all threaten to push a society out of the corridor. Maintaining liberty requires ongoing effort, dialogue, and a commitment to inclusive institutions and practices.
Ultimately, "The Narrow Corridor" is a call to action. It challenges us to think critically about the structures and norms that shape our societies, and to actively engage in the ongoing process of balancing state and societal power. Only through this continuous engagement can we hope to create and maintain the conditions necessary for liberty to thrive.
As we face the complex challenges of the 21st century, from climate change to technological disruption to global pandemics, the insights from "The Narrow Corridor" become even more crucial. They remind us that our responses to these challenges must not only be effective, but also preserve and strengthen the delicate balance that underpins our liberty.
The path of liberty may be narrow and fraught with dangers on either side, but it remains the surest route to a free and prosperous society. By understanding the dynamics of the corridor and committing ourselves to the ongoing work of liberty, we can hope to create a world where freedom and opportunity are available to all.