Alan Watts' "The Way of Zen" is a seminal work that introduces Western readers to the core principles and history of Zen Buddhism. Published in 1957, the book remains an influential and accessible exploration of a philosophy that can seem paradoxical and difficult to grasp for those unfamiliar with Eastern thought. Watts, a British philosopher who played a key role in popularizing Eastern philosophy in the West, breaks down complex ideas into digestible concepts while maintaining the essence of Zen teachings.
The book is divided into two main parts: "Background and History" and "Principles and Practice." Through these sections, Watts traces the origins of Zen from its roots in Chinese Taoism and Indian Buddhism, explores its development in China and Japan, and delves into its core principles and practices. Along the way, he challenges Western notions of knowledge, self, and reality, offering readers a fresh perspective on existence and consciousness.
Part 1: Background and History
The Origins of Zen in Chinese Taoism
Watts begins by exploring the foundations of Zen in Chinese Taoist philosophy. He introduces the concept of the Tao, often translated as "the Way," which represents the fundamental nature of reality and the universe. The Tao is described as an ineffable, all-encompassing principle that cannot be fully captured in words or concepts.
One of the earliest sources of Taoist thought is the I Ching, or Book of Changes, an ancient text used for divination. Watts explains how the I Ching's approach to decision-making challenges Western notions of rationality and knowledge. While Westerners often believe that more information leads to better decisions, the I Ching suggests that truly effective decision-making comes from being in tune with the Tao – a state of clear-mindedness and intuition.
This idea of trusting one's intuition and natural abilities becomes a central theme in Zen. Watts uses the example of breathing to illustrate this point. While most people know how to breathe, few could explain the exact physiological processes involved. Yet this lack of explicit knowledge doesn't hinder our ability to breathe. Similarly, Zen encourages trusting in the mind's natural abilities rather than relying solely on intellectual understanding.
The Influence of Buddhism
Watts then turns to the Buddhist roots of Zen, tracing its origins to the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the historical Buddha. He recounts the story of the Buddha's enlightenment, emphasizing the moment of sudden awakening that would become a hallmark of Zen practice.
The author explains key Buddhist concepts such as maya (illusion) and atma-yajna (God's self-sacrifice). In Buddhist thought, the world we perceive is considered an illusion, and our sense of self is seen as a construct rather than an inherent reality. The goal of Buddhist practice is to see through these illusions and recognize one's true nature.
Watts highlights the emphasis in Buddhism on negative knowledge – understanding what one is not, rather than what one is. This approach can be challenging for Western minds accustomed to concrete definitions and positive assertions. However, it aligns with the Buddhist view that reality is ultimately beyond conceptual understanding.
The Development of Mahayana Buddhism
The book then explores the emergence of Mahayana Buddhism, a school of thought that would significantly influence the development of Zen. Mahayana Buddhism arose partly in response to a desire for a more accessible path to enlightenment – one that could be achieved in this lifetime rather than after many reincarnations.
Watts delves into the complex logic of Mahayana thought, which posits that since reality itself is illusory, the idea of attaining enlightenment is paradoxical. If there is no real self to begin with, who is there to become enlightened? This leads to the Mahayana conclusion that we are already in a state of enlightenment – we just don't realize it.
This paradoxical thinking becomes a cornerstone of Zen philosophy. The goal is not to achieve enlightenment, but to recognize the enlightenment that is already present. However, Watts points out the double-bind inherent in this approach: trying not to try is still a form of trying. The challenge in Zen is to free oneself from the very motivation to attain enlightenment.
The Birth of Zen in China
Watts then traces the historical development of Zen in China. While popular accounts attribute the introduction of Zen to the Indian monk Bodhidharma in the 6th century, Watts suggests that the true origins of Zen can be found in the teachings of earlier Chinese monks.
He highlights the work of Seng-chao, a 5th-century monk whose ideas about time and change were influential in Zen thought. Seng-chao proposed that each moment stands on its own, without relation to past or future – a concept that aligns with Zen's emphasis on present-moment awareness.
Another key figure in the development of Zen was Hui-neng, who introduced the concept of chih-chih – the demonstration of Zen through non-symbolic actions or words. This gave rise to the often puzzling responses of Zen masters to spiritual questions, where they might answer with a casual remark about the weather or a seemingly unrelated action.
Watts explains that these unconventional responses are meant to express the master's Buddha nature directly, without the intermediary of conceptual thought. They embody the Zen principle of spontaneity, with words and actions arising naturally from the present moment.
Part 2: Principles and Practice
The Illusion of Self and the Nature of Reality
In the second part of the book, Watts delves deeper into the core principles of Zen philosophy. He begins by challenging the Western notion of happiness as a goal to be pursued. In Zen, this pursuit is seen as absurd because it's based on the false premise that one can experience only the good without the bad.
Watts uses the analogy of turning on a hard bed to illustrate this point. The initial relief of turning to a new position soon gives way to discomfort, showing that comfort and discomfort are interdependent. This reflects the Zen view that opposites are not truly separate but are different aspects of the same reality.
The author then tackles the concept of free will and determinism. In Zen, the idea of being a helpless victim of circumstances is rejected. Instead, Zen posits that we and our circumstances are inseparable. Watts gives the example of sweating on a hot day – in Zen understanding, you aren't sweating because it's hot; the sweating is the heat.
This leads to a discussion of the nature of self. Watts explains that in Zen, the self as we typically conceive it is an illusion created by our minds. Our usual way of defining ourselves – through personality traits, past experiences, or social roles – is seen as a symbolic construction that doesn't reflect our true nature. In Zen, the real "you" is simply the sum of everything you're aware of in the present moment.
Spontaneity and Naturalness in Zen
Watts emphasizes the importance of spontaneity and naturalness in Zen practice. The goal is not to strive to be anything in particular, but to allow oneself to be as natural and spontaneous as possible. This might seem like "doing nothing" from a Western perspective, but Watts points out that this is the natural state of most things in the world – a cat doesn't try to be anything other than a cat, and our ears don't try to do anything other than hear.
This principle extends to emotional responses as well. Watts recounts the story of a Zen monk who wept upon hearing of a relative's death. When criticized for this seemingly un-monk-like behavior, the monk replied, "Don't be stupid! I'm weeping because I want to weep." In Zen, whatever emotion naturally arises is considered valuable precisely because of its naturalness.
The concept of spontaneity is also central to Zen communication. Watts describes how Zen masters often respond to profound questions with seemingly nonsensical answers. These responses arise spontaneously from the master's mind, unfiltered by conceptual thought, and are meant to reveal deeper truths that can't be expressed through ordinary language.
This spontaneity is closely related to the Zen concept of satori, or sudden awakening. Satori isn't necessarily a grand, life-changing event but can be a moment of sudden insight or understanding. It's less about achieving a particular state and more about experiencing reality directly, without the filter of our usual conceptual thinking.
Zen Meditation: Sitting and Observing
Watts then turns to the practice of za-zen, or sitting meditation, which plays a central role in modern Zen communities. He emphasizes that the goal of za-zen is not to achieve any particular state of mind or to empty one's thoughts. Instead, it's about sitting and observing the world exactly as it is, without judgment or purpose.
The author uses the metaphor of a muddy river to explain this process. Just as muddy water becomes clear when left undisturbed, allowing the sediment to settle, so too does the mind become clear when allowed to rest in meditation. The key is not to force the mind into stillness, but to allow it to settle naturally.
Watts stresses that za-zen is not about concentrating on any particular object or trying to think about nothing. Rather, it's about maintaining a quiet awareness of whatever is happening in the present moment. The meditator and the external world are seen as one, with no particular purpose or goal in mind.
In Zen schools, za-zen practice is often paired with the study of koans – paradoxical questions or statements that can't be solved through logical reasoning. Watts explains that answering koans requires a clear and sharp mind, which za-zen helps to cultivate. The process of grappling with koans is meant to push students beyond their usual patterns of thought, leading to moments of insight or satori.
Zen in Art and Daily Life
Watts explores how Zen principles are expressed through various art forms, including painting, poetry, and architecture. He explains that Zen art often uses emptiness or minimalism to evoke a sense of the "aimless life" – what Westerners might consider empty or meaningless, but which in Zen represents boundless freedom.
In painting, this is exemplified by the sumi-e style, where a small part of the canvas is painted in black ink, leaving much of the space empty. This technique allows the empty space to come alive, mirroring the Zen principle of form arising spontaneously from emptiness.
Zen poetry, particularly haiku, similarly uses minimal words to evoke profound feelings or insights. A good haiku, Watts explains, should act like a stone thrown into the still waters of the listener's mind, creating ripples of meaning and association.
In architecture, particularly garden design, Zen principles are expressed through simplicity and the evocation of natural elements. A Zen garden might suggest the presence of water without actually containing any, encouraging the viewer's mind to complete the scene.
Watts emphasizes that these artistic expressions are not mere aesthetics but are meant to bring the observer face-to-face with the present moment. By experiencing the momentariness and spontaneity in Zen art, we learn to liberate ourselves from our usual time-bound thinking and recognize that the only reality is in the present moment.
Key Zen Concepts and Practices
Non-duality
One of the fundamental principles of Zen that Watts explores is non-duality. This concept challenges the Western tendency to see the world in terms of opposites or separate entities. In Zen, apparent opposites like self and other, mind and body, or subject and object are understood as interdependent aspects of a single reality.
Watts explains that this non-dual perspective is not just a philosophical idea but a direct experience that Zen practice aims to cultivate. By recognizing the fundamental unity of all things, practitioners can overcome the sense of separation that is seen as the root of suffering in Buddhist thought.
Emptiness (Sunyata)
Another crucial concept in Zen is emptiness, or sunyata in Sanskrit. Watts clarifies that this doesn't mean nothingness in the nihilistic sense, but rather the absence of inherent, independent existence. All phenomena are seen as empty of a fixed, unchanging essence and instead are understood as interdependent and in constant flux.
This understanding of emptiness is closely related to the Buddhist concept of impermanence. By recognizing the empty nature of all things, including our own selves, Zen practitioners aim to let go of attachments and live more fully in the present moment.
No-mind (Mushin)
Watts introduces the Zen concept of no-mind, or mushin, which refers to a state of consciousness free from discursive thought. This doesn't mean being unconscious or unaware, but rather being fully present and responsive without the interference of conceptual thinking or ego-driven desires.
The author explains that cultivating no-mind is not about suppressing thoughts but about not being attached to or identified with them. This state allows for spontaneous, appropriate action in any situation, unhindered by preconceptions or self-consciousness.
Beginner's Mind (Shoshin)
Related to no-mind is the concept of beginner's mind, or shoshin. Watts describes this as an attitude of openness, eagerness, and lack of preconceptions, even when studying at an advanced level. It involves approaching each moment with fresh eyes, free from the assumptions and expectations that come with expertise.
This principle is not just about learning but about experiencing life itself. By cultivating beginner's mind, Zen practitioners aim to see the world as it is, rather than as they think it should be, leading to a deeper, more direct engagement with reality.
Direct Pointing (Chih-chih)
Watts elaborates on the Zen teaching method of direct pointing, or chih-chih, which we encountered earlier in the historical section. This approach involves attempting to transmit understanding directly, without relying on concepts or explanations.
Direct pointing can take many forms, from the seemingly nonsensical responses of Zen masters to physical gestures or even silence. The goal is to jolt the student out of their usual patterns of thought and into a direct experience of reality.
Everyday Mind is the Way
Another key principle that Watts explores is the Zen saying, "Everyday mind is the Way." This teaches that enlightenment is not some special state separate from ordinary life, but is found in the most mundane activities when approached with full awareness.
Watts explains that this principle encourages practitioners to find the extraordinary in the ordinary, to see the profound in the simple acts of daily life. It's about recognizing that the ultimate truth of Zen is not separate from our everyday experiences but is inherent in them.
Challenges and Misconceptions
The Paradox of Seeking
Watts dedicates significant attention to what he calls the "paradox of seeking" in Zen. This refers to the contradiction inherent in trying to achieve enlightenment or become a Buddha. Since Zen teaches that we are already Buddha nature, any attempt to become enlightened is based on a false premise and is therefore doomed to fail.
The author explains that this paradox creates a double-bind for practitioners. Trying to attain enlightenment reinforces the illusion of a separate self that needs to be improved, while trying not to try is still a form of trying. Watts suggests that the resolution to this paradox lies in recognizing it fully, which can lead to a letting go of the very impulse to seek.
Zen is Not Escapism
Watts is careful to dispel the misconception that Zen is a form of escapism or a way to avoid dealing with the realities of life. He emphasizes that Zen is not about withdrawing from the world or seeking a permanent state of blissful tranquility.
Instead, Zen aims to engage fully with life as it is, including all its joys and sorrows. The goal is not to transcend human experience but to be fully present in it, free from the distortions of our habitual patterns of thought and emotion.
Zen is Not Nihilism
Another misconception that Watts addresses is the idea that Zen's teachings on emptiness and the illusory nature of the self lead to nihilism. He explains that while Zen does challenge our usual notions of reality and self, it doesn't negate existence altogether.
Rather, Zen points to a more direct, unmediated experience of reality. The emptiness taught in Zen is not a void, but a fullness that transcends our conceptual understanding. It's about recognizing the interdependent, ever-changing nature of all phenomena, including ourselves.
Zen is Not Anti-intellectual
While Zen often seems to challenge intellectual understanding, Watts clarifies that it is not anti-intellectual. Zen does critique the limitations of conceptual thought and emphasizes direct experience, but it doesn't reject the intellect altogether.
Instead, Zen aims to put the intellect in its proper place – as a tool rather than the arbiter of ultimate truth. Watts explains that Zen study often involves rigorous intellectual training, particularly in the koan system, but this is always in service of direct insight rather than an end in itself.
The Relevance of Zen in the Modern World
Overcoming Alienation
Watts argues that Zen has particular relevance in the modern world, where many people feel alienated from themselves, others, and nature. He suggests that Zen's non-dual perspective can help overcome this sense of separation, leading to a more integrated and harmonious way of living.
The author points out that many of the problems we face, both individually and collectively, stem from our dualistic thinking and our tendency to see ourselves as separate from the world around us. Zen offers a way to transcend this limited view and recognize our fundamental interconnectedness with all of life.
Dealing with Information Overload
In an age of information overload, Watts proposes that Zen's emphasis on direct experience and present-moment awareness can be particularly valuable. Rather than getting lost in endless data and analysis, Zen encourages us to tune into our direct, immediate experience of life.
This doesn't mean rejecting information or intellectual understanding, but rather developing the ability to see clearly without being overwhelmed by conceptual thought. Watts suggests that this can lead to more intuitive, holistic ways of problem-solving and decision-making.
Finding Meaning in a Secular Age
For those struggling to find meaning in a secular age, Watts presents Zen as a spiritual path that doesn't require belief in supernatural entities or dogmatic adherence to a particular creed. Instead, Zen offers a way to discover profound meaning and value in the simple facts of existence.
The author argues that by fully embracing our nature as part of the universe, rather than seeing ourselves as separate from it, we can experience a deep sense of belonging and purpose. This doesn't come from achieving some future goal, but from fully inhabiting our present reality.
Cultivating Presence in a Distracted World
In a world full of distractions, Watts highlights the value of Zen's practices for cultivating presence and attention. Whether through formal meditation or bringing mindful awareness to everyday activities, Zen offers practical tools for becoming more fully present in our lives.
The author suggests that this cultivation of presence can lead to a richer, more satisfying experience of life. It allows us to fully engage with each moment, rather than always being caught up in thoughts about the past or future.
Conclusion
In concluding "The Way of Zen," Watts emphasizes that Zen is not a philosophy to be understood intellectually, but a way of life to be experienced directly. He reiterates that the goal of Zen is not to achieve some special state or to escape from reality, but to see and live in harmony with things as they are.
The author encourages readers to approach Zen not as a set of beliefs to be adopted, but as a mirror in which to see their own nature more clearly. He suggests that the real value of Zen lies not in its exotic trappings or mystical ideas, but in its potential to awaken us to the wonder and mystery of our ordinary, everyday existence.
Watts concludes by reminding us that the way of Zen is always here and now, available in each moment if we're willing to see it. Whether we call it Zen or not, the direct, unmediated experience of reality that Zen points to is our birthright as conscious beings. The challenge – and the invitation – is to wake up to this reality in the midst of our busy, complex lives.
Through his clear, engaging exploration of Zen's history, principles, and practices, Alan Watts offers readers a valuable introduction to this profound spiritual tradition. More than just an academic study, "The Way of Zen" serves as a provocative challenge to our usual ways of thinking and perceiving, inviting us to experience life more directly and fully. In doing so, it continues to serve as a bridge between Eastern and Western thought, opening up new possibilities for understanding ourselves and our place in the universe.