World Order Summary

“Every civilization tries to impose its world order on the rest of humanity, and every system of order rests on a vision of how the world should work.” - Henry Kissinger

1. World Order Shapes Foreign Policy

World order is more than a theoretical concept; it is the framework that dictates how nations act and interact. A world order encapsulates a shared set of ideas about governance and global organization that shapes foreign policies and strategic goals. Nations engage in wars or alliances based on these visions of order.

For example, European nations have historically promoted the concept of democratic governance worldwide. Prince Klemens von Metternich, a major strategist, believed that stable international relationships required recognizing all actors' legitimate interests, not just one's own. This philosophy reflects the influence of world order on diplomacy and decision-making.

Examples

• European nations advocating democracy globally.
• Metternich’s strategy to consider every nation's interests.
• The belief in shared governance principles underpinning Europe’s international interactions.

2. Power Balances Prevent Conflict

A balance of power often leads to peace, as seen in the Cold War, where the United States and the Soviet Union both avoided direct conflict. Over decades, their equal strength created a delicate but functional equilibrium.

Neither nation dared to make significant aggressive moves due to the potential devastation of nuclear retaliation. This balance allowed for a focus on negotiation and strategy rather than outright warfare, preserving global peace during a dangerous era.

Examples

• The Cold War stalemate between the US and USSR.
• Unused nuclear weapon stockpiles preventing escalation.
• The eventual collapse of the Soviet Union marking the end of the balance.

3. The European Order and the Peace of Westphalia

The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ended the Thirty Years’ War and introduced a principle central to modern diplomacy – state sovereignty. Each nation was entitled to govern itself without foreign interference.

This treaty acknowledged diverse beliefs and fostered mutual respect, stabilizing Europe for centuries. By defining sovereignty, it laid the foundation for diplomatic negotiations and peaceful co-existence, principles still relevant in international law today.

Examples

• The Thirty Years’ War devastating Europe.
• Westphalia supporting sovereignty and equality among nations.
• The treaty’s influence on modern global diplomacy.

4. Flexibility in Alliances Determines Stability

During post-Westphalian Europe, the willingness to form flexible alliances prevented any one country from dominating the region. Nations were not restricted by rigid loyalties, allowing coalitions based on strategic interests.

However, this flexibility broke down with events like the Franco-German War, leading to the creation of permanent alliances. These rigid alliances contributed to World War I, as countries were compelled to support their allies without room for negotiation.

Examples

• Flexible alliances during the Thirty Years’ War uniting against stronger adversaries.
• Napoleon’s defeat through coalition forces.
• The rigid alliances before World War I escalating conflicts.

5. German Unification Disrupted the Power Balance

Germany’s unification under Otto von Bismarck altered Europe’s power dynamics significantly. Before 1871, the fragmented German states maintained order, partly due to their strategic interconnectedness and collective strength.

However, once unified, Germany became a dominant force with significant military and political power. This shift disrupted European stability and directly contributed to the world wars of the twentieth century.

Examples

• Pre-unified German states acting as a buffer.
• Bismarck’s leadership centralizing Germany’s strength.
• Post-unification aggressions culminating in World War I.

6. Historical Context Shapes Political Actions

Both leaders and nations are molded by their histories and experiences. For example, Metternich’s upbringing in a multicultural region shaped his ability to consider multiple perspectives. In contrast, Bismarck’s noble background drove him to prioritize state interests in diplomacy.

Similarly, Russia’s defensive strategies stem from historical invasions. These experiences explain the mistrust shaping their foreign policies today. Conversely, Europe’s preference for peaceful alliances stems from its history of protracted wars.

Examples

• Metternich’s multicultural upbringing fostering diplomacy.
• Bismarck’s Prussian background emphasizing state interests.
• Russia’s reluctance to reduce military defenses after historical invasions.

7. Conflicts Stem from Divergent World Orders

The Cold War highlighted the clash between democratic capitalism and communism, two mutually exclusive world orders. This ideological conflict carried into proxy wars like Korea and Vietnam, where nations fought to adopt one of these systems.

The Middle East also illustrates this concept, with competing visions of Islamic governance leading to enduring disputes. These conflicts often arise because each world order claims universal applicability, leaving little room for compromise.

Examples

• The Cold War’s capitalism versus communism dichotomy.
• Proxy wars fought over ideological allegiance.
• Middle Eastern conflicts fueled by divergent interpretations of Islam.

8. Radical Beliefs and Incompatibility

World orders based on extreme ideologies, such as orthodox readings of the Quran, are incompatible with others. These visions divide the globe into "dar al-islam" (House of Islam) and "dar al-harb" (realm of war), creating perpetual tension with secular or pluralistic systems.

Such beliefs challenge concepts like sovereignty and religious freedom, hallmarks of the Westphalian order, making diplomatic resolutions difficult.

Examples

• The Quran’s classification of Islamic and non-Islamic states.
• Fundamentalist visions conflicting with state sovereignty.
• Tensions between Western democracies and nations embracing strict Islamic laws.

9. The US and the Westphalian Order

The United States has often employed balance-of-power strategies inspired by the Westphalian order. For instance, Theodore Roosevelt demonstrated naval power to maintain an equilibrium among rivals like Russia, China, and Japan.

Furthermore, the US has aligned itself with principles of sovereignty and balance to influence global events while justifying its military actions as defending these values.

Examples

• Roosevelt’s White Fleet showcasing naval supremacy.
• Leveraging tensions among global rivals like China and Japan.
• US-led wars justified by promoting sovereignty and balance.

Takeaways

1. Understand the historical and cultural contexts that shape people's decisions to create better diplomatic or personal connections.
2. Maintain flexibility in alliances or relationships to adapt to changing circumstances and preserve optionality.
3. Treat others, regardless of perceived power or status, with equal respect to foster cooperation, as demonstrated during the Peace of Westphalia.