Introduction
In "Enlightenment Now," Steven Pinker presents a compelling case for optimism in today's world. Despite the constant barrage of negative news and doomsday predictions, Pinker argues that we are living in the best time in human history. He attributes this progress to the ideals of the Enlightenment: reason, science, humanism, and progress.
Pinker's book is a refreshing antidote to the pessimism that often dominates public discourse. By examining a wide range of data and historical trends, he demonstrates that nearly every measure of human well-being has improved dramatically over time. From life expectancy and health to wealth and education, the world has made remarkable strides.
However, this isn't just a book of feel-good statistics. Pinker delves into the philosophical underpinnings of the Enlightenment and explains why its values are still crucial for continued human progress. He also addresses current challenges and threats, offering a reasoned perspective on how to approach them.
Let's explore the key ideas in "Enlightenment Now" and see how they can reshape our understanding of the modern world.
The Enlightenment and Its Enduring Impact
The Enlightenment, which began in 18th-century Europe, marked a turning point in human history. Before this period, much of the world was mired in superstition, ignorance, and authoritarian rule. People blamed natural disasters on witches or angry gods, and countless individuals were tortured or killed in the name of religion.
The Enlightenment introduced four main themes that transformed society:
Reason: The idea that logical thinking and evidence should guide our understanding of the world and our decision-making.
Science: The systematic pursuit of knowledge through observation, experimentation, and analysis.
Humanism: A secular ethical philosophy that values human welfare and individual rights.
Progress: The belief that through reason and effort, we can improve the human condition.
These ideas led to profound changes in society. For example, the emphasis on reason challenged long-held beliefs about slavery, eventually contributing to its abolition. The scientific method opened up new realms of knowledge, from early neuroscience to cultural anthropology. Humanism offered an alternative to religious dogma as a basis for morality and human rights.
One of the most significant outcomes of the Enlightenment was the development of cosmopolitanism – the idea that all humans are part of a global community, deserving of equal rights and consideration regardless of their place of birth. This rejection of narrow tribalism laid the groundwork for modern international cooperation and human rights frameworks.
Pinker argues that despite claims to the contrary, we are still experiencing the benefits of the Enlightenment today. The interconnected, diverse global system we've built is more resilient against entropy – the tendency of systems to break down over time. By continually adding energy and information from various sources, our civilization has managed to increase order and complexity rather than succumb to decay.
Life Expectancy, Health, and Sustenance
One of the most dramatic improvements brought about by Enlightenment values is the increase in life expectancy. At the start of the Enlightenment in the mid-18th century, the global average life expectancy was a mere 29 years – even lower than that of our hunter-gatherer ancestors. Today, that number has more than doubled in most parts of the world.
This increase is due to several factors:
Reduced child mortality: Far fewer infants and children die in their early years, significantly boosting overall life expectancy statistics.
Safer childbirth: Mothers are much more likely to survive giving birth than in previous generations.
Extended old age: People are living longer at every stage of life. For example, in Britain, a 30-year-old in 1845 could expect to live another 30 years. In 2011, they could expect another 52 years.
Global improvements: These gains are not limited to wealthy countries. In Ethiopia, for instance, a 10-year-old in 1950 could expect 34 more years of life. Today, they can expect 51 more years.
Not only are we living longer, but we're also living healthier lives. Many diseases that once ravaged populations have been eradicated or nearly eliminated, including polio, smallpox, measles, and rubella. This progress is due to advances in medical science and public health measures.
The importance of these advances can't be overstated. In the past, even the wealthiest and most powerful individuals were vulnerable to infectious diseases. Pinker cites the example of Calvin Coolidge Jr., son of the 30th U.S. President, who died at 16 from an infection caused by a blister from playing tennis.
Today, simple measures like hand washing, using mosquito nets, and boiling drinking water – all products of scientific understanding – save countless lives.
Another area of remarkable progress is in food security. Just 150 years ago, children in Sweden were starving to death during long winters. As recently as 45 years ago, 35 percent of the world's population was malnourished. By 2015, that number had dropped to an all-time low of 13 percent – despite the addition of five billion people to the planet during that time.
This achievement is largely due to advances in agricultural science. We can now produce more food on less land, using less water, and with higher nutrient content. These improvements have made famine increasingly rare and have contributed significantly to global health and well-being.
Wealth and Inequality
The spread of Enlightenment values has also led to unprecedented growth in global wealth. In 1820, nearly 90 percent of the world's population lived in extreme poverty. Since then, the picture has changed dramatically.
Between 1820 and 1900, global income tripled. This growth was partly due to the adoption of trade as a tool for improving international relations. Countries began to set aside religious differences in favor of mutual economic benefit, a prime example of Enlightenment cosmopolitanism in action.
The pace of economic growth continued to accelerate. Global income tripled again between 1900 and 1950, and then tripled a third time in just 33 years. Today, we see rapid economic growth in countries across the world. South Korea and Singapore have become wealthy nations, while countries like Vietnam, Rwanda, and El Salvador are doubling their income every 18 years. Another 40 nations are doubling their income every 35 years.
However, this rapid growth often leads to a period of increased inequality, a phenomenon described by the Kuznets curve, named after economist Simon Kuznets. According to this theory, as a country industrializes, inequality first rises sharply, then gradually levels out as the benefits of growth spread more widely through society.
We can see this pattern playing out globally. Many nations experienced fast growth in the 1970s, leading to high levels of inequality. Since then, data shows a gradual decline in wealth inequality, paralleling declining poverty levels.
Another important economic principle at work is Wagner's law, which states that as a country becomes wealthier, it tends to spend more on social programs that benefit the poor. In early 20th century European countries, an average of 1.5 percent of earnings was spent on such programs. Today, that figure has risen to an average of 22 percent.
These trends demonstrate that economic growth, when coupled with Enlightenment values of reason and humanism, can lead to broad-based improvements in living standards and reductions in inequality over time.
Violence and Safety
One of the most counterintuitive findings Pinker presents is that we are living in the safest time in human history. Despite the horrific conflicts we see in the news, such as the war in Syria, global violence has actually decreased dramatically over time.
To put things in perspective, Pinker compares current conflicts with historical events:
- While the Syrian war has displaced millions, the Bangladesh War of 1971 displaced 10 million people.
- The partition of India in 1947 turned 14 million people into refugees.
- World War II forced 60 million people to flee their homes.
The decline in violence can be attributed to several factors, all rooted in Enlightenment principles:
Problem-solving approach: The Enlightenment emphasized solving disputes through reason rather than force.
International cooperation: The formation of the United Nations in 1945 and the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provided a framework for peaceful conflict resolution.
Economic interdependence: Increased trade and commerce have forged healthier international relations, making war less attractive.
Rising prosperity: As nations become wealthier, they can provide better healthcare and education, reducing the incentives for civil war and unrest.
Democratic governance: Democracies are less likely to go to war with each other and are better at protecting human rights.
The result has been a significant reduction in wars and armed conflicts. Since World War II, wars have become increasingly rare. In 2009, there was a marked decrease as several long-running civil wars, including those in Angola, Chad, Peru, and Sri Lanka, came to an end.
This trend extends beyond war to other forms of violence. Crime rates have fallen in many parts of the world as prosperity has increased and societies have become more stable and well-governed.
Democracy and Equal Rights
The spread of democracy is another triumph of Enlightenment values. In the 1970s, the future of democracy looked bleak. West German Chancellor Willy Brandt even called it a "peculiar holdover with no future." However, the following decades saw a massive global shift towards democratic governance.
Democracy embodies key Enlightenment principles:
- It protects people from both tyranny and anarchy.
- It allows for peaceful transitions of power.
- It tends to promote economic growth, education, and human rights.
The numbers tell a compelling story. In the 1920s, during the rise of fascism, the number of democracies in the world fell to just 12. By 2015, there were 103 democratic nations.
This shift towards democracy has had far-reaching effects beyond governance. It has facilitated the spread of other Enlightenment values, particularly in the realm of equal rights.
Racism and sexism, being fundamentally irrational beliefs, cannot withstand scrutiny in a society that values reason and evidence. As the world has become more interconnected and cosmopolitan, these prejudices have been increasingly challenged and refuted.
The results are clear:
- In 1950, half of the world's nations had laws discriminating based on ethnicity or race. By 2003, less than one-fifth did.
- Women can now vote in every country where men are allowed to vote, with the sole exception of Vatican City.
These changes represent a profound shift in global attitudes, driven by the Enlightenment principles of reason, humanism, and progress.
Environmental Challenges and Existential Threats
While Pinker's overall message is optimistic, he doesn't shy away from addressing the serious challenges facing humanity, particularly environmental issues and potential existential threats.
Climate change is perhaps the most pressing environmental concern. Pinker acknowledges the gravity of the situation: we need to cut CO2 emissions by 50 percent by 2050 and eliminate them completely by 2100 to avoid catastrophic consequences. However, he argues that this challenge can be met with the tools of reason and science, rather than despair or denial.
Pinker also tackles other perceived threats, such as terrorism and artificial intelligence (AI). He points out that despite widespread fears, an American is more likely to be killed by lightning or a bee sting than by a terrorist. Similarly, while AI has made remarkable progress in specific tasks, the idea that it poses an imminent existential threat to humanity is not supported by evidence.
The author attributes much of the fear surrounding these issues to negative bias in media reporting and a tendency towards sensationalism. He argues for a more rational, evidence-based approach to assessing and addressing potential threats.
The Importance of Defending Science and Reason
One of Pinker's key messages is the need to defend science and reason against attacks from various quarters. He points out that science, contrary to some claims, doesn't have an agenda beyond the pursuit of knowledge. It's not inherently racist, sexist, or responsible for atrocities like the Holocaust.
Pinker debunks several common misconceptions:
The claim that science fueled Hitler's Nazi agenda: In fact, Hitler was expressly anti-science and anti-reason.
The idea that Darwinism supported Nazi racial theories: Darwin's theory actually argues that all humans have base impulses and that no group is superior to another.
The notion that eugenics, as proposed by Francis Galton, led to Nazi atrocities: Galton's idea was limited to incentivizing talented people to procreate, not sterilizing "unfit" individuals.
Pinker warns that modern attacks on science often serve to discredit legitimate concerns, such as climate change. He emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between real science and pseudoscience, and of basing policy decisions on solid scientific evidence.
The Path Forward: Embracing Enlightenment Values
Despite recent political developments that seem to push back against Enlightenment values – such as the rise of populist movements in various countries – Pinker remains optimistic about the future.
He points out that these movements often represent a minority view, even when they achieve electoral success. For instance, Donald Trump lost the popular vote in the U.S. presidential election and has faced historically low approval ratings. In Europe, populist parties have only managed to get about 13 percent of the vote on average.
Moreover, Pinker sees reasons for long-term optimism:
Younger generations tend to be more progressive, tolerant, and less religious than their predecessors.
Even in traditionally religious countries, there's been a trend towards secularization.
Democratic institutions and checks and balances have shown resilience in the face of authoritarian tendencies.
The overall trend towards reason, science, and humanism continues, despite temporary setbacks.
Pinker argues that embracing Enlightenment values is crucial for addressing the challenges we face and continuing the progress we've made. He calls for a renewed commitment to reason, science, and humanism as guiding principles for individuals and societies.
Conclusion
"Enlightenment Now" presents a powerful case for optimism based on a clear-eyed assessment of human progress. By examining long-term trends and hard data, Steven Pinker demonstrates that life has improved dramatically for most of humanity over the past few centuries.
Key takeaways from the book include:
The Enlightenment values of reason, science, humanism, and progress have driven unprecedented improvements in human well-being.
Life expectancy, health, wealth, safety, and equal rights have all shown remarkable advances globally.
While serious challenges remain, particularly in areas like climate change, we have the tools to address them through reason and science.
Despite some worrying political trends, the overall direction of human society continues to be towards greater embrace of Enlightenment values.
Defending science and reason against misunderstanding and deliberate attacks is crucial for continued progress.
Pinker's work serves as a much-needed corrective to the often pessimistic narrative that dominates public discourse. By putting current events into historical context and focusing on long-term trends rather than short-term fluctuations, he provides a more accurate and hopeful picture of the human condition.
However, this optimism is not an invitation to complacency. Instead, it's a call to action – to recognize the progress we've made, understand how we achieved it, and redouble our efforts to solve the problems that remain. By embracing the Enlightenment ideals that have brought us so far, we can continue to make the world a better place for all of humanity.
In essence, "Enlightenment Now" is both a celebration of human achievement and a roadmap for future progress. It reminds us that while the arc of history doesn't bend towards justice on its own, through reason, science, and humanism, we have the power to shape a better future. As we face the challenges of the 21st century and beyond, Pinker's work provides a valuable perspective on how far we've come and how we can continue to move forward.