Introduction
Slavoj Žižek's "First as Tragedy, Then as Farce" is a thought-provoking exploration of modern capitalism and its ideological underpinnings. The book's title draws inspiration from Karl Marx's famous observation that historical events tend to occur twice - first as tragedy, then as farce. Žižek applies this concept to recent global events, using the September 11 attacks and the 2008 financial crisis as prime examples.
In this insightful work, Žižek challenges readers to critically examine the capitalist system that dominates our world. He argues that capitalism is not merely an economic mechanism but a pervasive ideology that shapes our thoughts, behaviors, and societal structures. Through a series of compelling arguments and examples, Žižek makes the case that the current capitalist system is fundamentally flawed and unable to address the major challenges facing humanity.
The book delves into complex philosophical and political concepts, but Žižek presents his ideas in an accessible and engaging manner. He draws connections between seemingly unrelated topics, from pop culture references to historical events, to illustrate his points about the nature of capitalism and its impact on society.
As we explore the key ideas in "First as Tragedy, Then as Farce," we'll uncover how capitalism has seeped into every aspect of our lives, examine its contradictions and shortcomings, and consider Žižek's provocative suggestion that a reimagined form of communism might offer a viable alternative for creating a more equitable and sustainable world.
The Nature of Capitalism as an Ideology
One of the central arguments in Žižek's book is that capitalism is not simply an economic system or a neutral mechanism for organizing society. Instead, he posits that capitalism is a powerful ideology - a set of beliefs and ideas that shape how we perceive the world and our place in it.
The Illusion of Neutrality
Many people view capitalism as a natural and inevitable way of organizing economic activity. It's often presented as a purely technical system that "just works," devoid of any underlying philosophical or ideological assumptions. Žižek challenges this notion, arguing that capitalism is far from neutral.
He points out that capitalism can coexist with various belief systems and cultural frameworks, such as Buddhism, Christianity, or the concept of a welfare state. This adaptability might seem to support the idea of capitalism as a neutral system. However, Žižek argues that these diverse belief systems actually serve as a kind of safety net or coping mechanism for people when the promises of capitalist success inevitably fall short.
If capitalism were truly natural or neutral, we wouldn't need these additional systems of meaning to fall back on. The fact that we do suggests that capitalism itself is an ideology - one that makes promises it can't always fulfill.
The Self-Reinforcing Nature of Capitalist Ideology
Žižek explores how capitalist ideology manages to perpetuate itself, even in the face of repeated crises and failures. One might expect that events like economic crashes or growing inequality would lead people to question the capitalist system. However, Žižek argues that these crises often have the opposite effect.
When faced with a crisis, people tend to double down on their beliefs rather than critically examining them. Instead of questioning the fundamental principles of capitalism, many conclude that the problem lies in not adhering to those principles strictly enough.
Žižek draws a parallel to the response of socialist regimes when faced with crises. Rather than reconsidering their approach, leaders often insisted that the solution was to become even more ardently socialist. Similarly, after the 2008 financial crisis, many argued that the problem was too much regulation and government intervention, when in reality, the crisis was largely caused by a lack of adequate oversight.
This tendency to reinforce existing beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence is a key feature of ideological thinking. It helps explain why capitalism has remained so resilient despite its many shortcomings and crises.
The False Attribution of Freedoms
Another way that capitalist ideology maintains its grip is by taking credit for societal advancements that it didn't actually create. Žižek points out that many of the freedoms and rights we enjoy today are often attributed to capitalism and free markets, when in fact they were hard-won through revolutionary politics and social movements.
For example, universal suffrage, labor laws, and freedom of the press were all achieved through the efforts of emancipatory movements, often in the face of fierce opposition from capitalist powers. Similarly, many of the rights demanded in Marx and Engels's Communist Manifesto were eventually achieved through pressure from left-wing groups, not through the natural evolution of capitalism.
By falsely attributing these advancements to capitalism, the ideology strengthens its position and makes it harder for people to imagine alternatives.
The Shifting Face of Capitalism
Žižek's analysis goes beyond just identifying capitalism as an ideology. He also examines how capitalism has evolved and adapted over time, taking on new forms that can be deceptively egalitarian in appearance.
The New Organizational Structure
Since the 1970s, capitalism has undergone a significant shift in its organizational structure. The traditional hierarchical model, with a boss at the top controlling everything below, has given way to a more fluid structure based on teams and projects. At first glance, this new approach might seem more egalitarian and equal.
However, Žižek argues that this new structure merely conceals the underlying power dynamics rather than fundamentally changing them. While the organizational chart may look different, there is still someone at the top - a CEO or department head - who holds the ultimate decision-making power.
Permissions vs. Rights
This shift in organizational structure is part of a broader trend that Žižek identifies: the replacement of rights with permissions. In the new capitalist paradigm, people are given more permissions to do things, but these permissions can be revoked at any time by those who hold the actual rights and power.
For example, in collaborative work environments, employees may have permission to be involved in decision-making processes. However, the final say still rests with those at the top of the hierarchy. Similarly, marginalized groups like LGBTQ+ individuals or racial minorities may gain more permissions in society, such as the right to marry or protection against discrimination. However, these permissions can be revoked or challenged, as seen in the case of Proposition 8 in California, which temporarily revoked the right to same-sex marriage.
This system of permissions creates the illusion of progress and equality without actually redistributing power in any meaningful way. It allows capitalism to present a more egalitarian face while maintaining its fundamental power structures.
The Experience of Consumption
Žižek also explores how the nature of consumption has changed under modern capitalism. He argues that consumption has shifted from being primarily about acquiring useful goods or services to becoming an experience in itself.
When we buy products, we're not just purchasing their material benefits. Instead, we're buying into experiences, identities, and values. For example, when we buy "ethical" coffee from a company like Starbucks, we're not just getting caffeine - we're purchasing the experience of making a seemingly positive ethical decision.
This shift transforms consumption into a way of finding meaning and expressing our identity. We choose products and brands that reflect who we are or who we want to be, turning our purchasing decisions into statements about our values and personality.
This experiential aspect of consumption serves to further embed capitalist ideology into our daily lives. It turns every purchase into a potential act of self-expression or ethical statement, making it harder to separate our sense of self from the capitalist system of consumption.
The Hidden Workings of Ideology
One of the key strengths of capitalist ideology, according to Žižek, is its ability to operate in hidden ways, shaping our perceptions and behaviors without us being fully aware of it.
Ideological Fetishes
Žižek introduces the concept of "ideological fetishes" - objects or ideas that are given greater value or significance than they inherently possess. These fetishes often serve to mask or distract from underlying conflicts or problems in society.
For example, Žižek points to Western Buddhism as an ideological fetish. It allows people to participate in the frantic pace of capitalist society while maintaining an illusion of inner peace and mindfulness. The Buddhist practices serve as a coping mechanism, enabling people to continue functioning within the capitalist system rather than challenging it.
Scapegoats and False Conflicts
Another way that ideology operates is by creating false conflicts or scapegoats that divert attention from real systemic issues. Žižek uses the example of anti-Semitism to illustrate this point. The anti-Semitic portrayal of "the Jew" as a mythical, all-powerful force serves to mask the real conflict between capitalist elites and the rest of society.
Similarly, in Islamo-Fascist ideology, the State of Israel often serves as a fetish that represents broader problems in the region, such as poverty and failed revolutionary politics. By focusing on these fetishes or scapegoats, people are distracted from addressing the underlying systemic issues that are the root cause of their problems.
The Illusion of the Private Self
Žižek also explores how the capitalist ideology promotes the idea of a "private self" that is separate from our public roles and actions. This concept allows people to distance themselves from the consequences of their actions within the capitalist system.
For instance, a person might justify unethical behavior in their professional role by claiming that it doesn't reflect who they "really are" inside. This separation of the private self from public actions makes it easier for people to participate in unjust systems without feeling personally responsible.
Moreover, this emphasis on individualism and the private self makes collective action more difficult. Any attempt at organized resistance can be framed as an oppressive force threatening individual freedom and authenticity.
The Four Great Antagonisms
In his analysis of the current global situation, Žižek identifies four major antagonisms or conflicts that he believes are central to understanding the challenges we face. These antagonisms, he argues, cannot be adequately addressed within the framework of capitalism and require a new approach.
1. The Commons of Culture
The first antagonism concerns what Žižek calls the "commons of culture." This includes shared resources like language, means of communication, education, and infrastructure. In the capitalist system, these cultural commons are increasingly being privatized under the banner of "intellectual property."
This privatization restricts access to cultural resources and knowledge, creating artificial scarcity in areas that should be freely available to all. For example, academic research funded by public money is often locked behind paywalls, limiting who can access and benefit from this knowledge.
2. The Commons of External Nature
The second antagonism relates to our natural environment. Climate change, species extinction, and the depletion of natural resources pose existential threats to humanity. These environmental challenges are global in nature and cannot be effectively addressed by individual nations or private companies acting in their own self-interest.
Capitalism's drive for constant growth and profit is fundamentally at odds with the need for environmental sustainability. Žižek argues that addressing these environmental challenges requires a level of global cooperation and long-term planning that is difficult, if not impossible, within a capitalist framework.
3. The Commons of Internal Nature
The third antagonism concerns what it means to be human in an age of rapid technological advancement. Developments in fields like genetics and neuroscience are opening up possibilities for altering human nature itself.
Žižek warns of the potential dangers if this technology is controlled by states or corporations driven by profit motives rather than the common good. The ability to genetically enhance human beings, for instance, could lead to new forms of inequality and social control if not managed carefully.
4. The Included and the Excluded
The fourth and most crucial antagonism in Žižek's view is the division between the "Included" and the "Excluded" in society. The Excluded are those who have no place in the social order and are left out of decision-making processes. They form what Žižek calls a "part of no-part" in society.
This antagonism is particularly challenging because as soon as the Excluded are brought into the system and given a voice, they cease to be Excluded and become part of the Included. This makes it difficult to address the needs and perspectives of the truly marginalized within existing political frameworks.
Žižek argues that these four antagonisms create the need for a new global organization of society. Addressing these challenges requires a fundamental rethinking of how we organize our economic and political systems, which leads him to advocate for a reimagined form of communism.
The Case for Communism
Given the challenges posed by the four antagonisms and the shortcomings of capitalism, Žižek makes a provocative argument for revisiting and reimagining the idea of communism.
Rethinking Communism
Žižek acknowledges that for many people, the word "communism" evokes images of totalitarian regimes and historical atrocities. However, he argues that these past implementations of communism were not true to the core principles of communist thought.
He suggests that we need to "begin from the beginning" in our thinking about communism, rather than trying to build on or modify previous attempts. This approach, which philosopher Alain Badiou calls the "communist hypothesis," involves reimagining what an egalitarian society could look like without being constrained by historical baggage.
The Question of Property
At the heart of Žižek's argument for communism is a fundamental questioning of the concept of property. While capitalism is built on the defense of private property, and socialism on state ownership, communism questions the very idea of ownership itself.
Žižek points out that there are some things that we can all agree shouldn't be owned by anyone due to their importance for survival - like the air we breathe. He suggests extending this thinking to other crucial resources and aspects of society.
This reimagining of property relations is crucial for addressing the four antagonisms. For instance, it could help protect the cultural and natural commons from exploitation and ensure that advancements in technology benefit all of humanity rather than just a privileged few.
Prioritizing the Excluded
One of the key features of Žižek's vision of communism is its focus on the perspective of the Excluded. Rather than trying to reform the existing system to include more people, communist thought aims to transform society based on the needs and viewpoints of those who are currently marginalized.
This approach, Žižek argues, has the potential to break down the institutional distinctions between the Included and Excluded, creating a truly egalitarian society.
Collective Action
Žižek emphasizes that the fundamental drive behind communism is collective action. He argues that without collective organization and effort, there is no possibility of creating a better, more equitable society.
This focus on collective action stands in contrast to the individualism promoted by capitalist ideology. It suggests that the major challenges facing humanity - from environmental crisis to technological change - can only be effectively addressed through coordinated, society-wide efforts.
Challenges and Misconceptions
While making his case for a reimagined communism, Žižek also addresses some of the challenges and misconceptions that often arise in discussions of alternatives to capitalism.
The Failure of Past "Communist" Societies
Žižek directly confronts the argument that communism has been proven not to work, pointing out that no truly communist society has ever existed. He argues that the failures of regimes like the USSR were actually failures of socialism, not communism.
In socialist societies, the commons are owned by the state, and people are assigned roles within the community. This is fundamentally different from the egalitarian collective envisioned in communist thought. Under socialism, there are still decision-makers (the Included) and those who are excluded from power, making true equality impossible.
The Relationship Between Capitalism and Democracy
Žižek challenges the common assumption that capitalism necessarily leads to democracy. He points to examples like Singapore and China, which have capitalist economies but authoritarian political systems.
He argues that capitalism can actually benefit from and coexist with totalitarian regimes. The economic model of "Capitalism with Asian Values," pioneered in Singapore and adopted in China, demonstrates how capitalist economic principles can be combined with centralized political control.
The Role of Socialism in Sustaining Capitalism
Interestingly, Žižek suggests that some form of socialism might be necessary for the long-term survival of capitalism. To avoid the kind of communist revolution that would abolish private property altogether, capitalist systems need to appease people through strong government programs and social safety nets.
These socialistic elements can take different forms, from the overt state planning seen in some Asian capitalist countries to the more hidden forms of communitarianism found in some Western nations.
Final Thoughts: The Need for Radical Change
As Žižek concludes his analysis, he emphasizes the urgent need for a fundamental rethinking of our social, economic, and political systems. The four great antagonisms he identifies - the commons of culture, external nature, internal nature, and the division between the Included and Excluded - pose existential challenges that cannot be adequately addressed within the framework of capitalism.
The environmental crisis, in particular, underscores the need for immediate and coordinated global action. The capitalist drive for constant growth and profit is fundamentally at odds with the need for environmental sustainability. Addressing climate change and preserving our natural resources requires a level of long-term planning and cooperation that is difficult, if not impossible, to achieve in a system driven by short-term profit motives.
Similarly, the rapid advancements in technology, particularly in fields like genetics and artificial intelligence, raise profound questions about the future of humanity. If the development and application of these technologies are left to market forces and profit-driven corporations, we risk exacerbating existing inequalities and creating new forms of social control.
Žižek argues that only a radically new approach - one that prioritizes collective action, questions fundamental assumptions about property and ownership, and centers the needs of the most marginalized - can hope to address these challenges effectively.
His call for a reimagined form of communism is not a nostalgic longing for failed past experiments, but a forward-looking proposal for a new way of organizing society. This new communism would need to learn from the mistakes of the past while staying true to the core principles of egalitarianism and collective action.
Ultimately, "First as Tragedy, Then as Farce" is a provocative and challenging work that forces readers to question deeply held assumptions about capitalism, democracy, and the nature of social progress. Whether one agrees with all of Žižek's conclusions or not, his analysis provides a valuable framework for thinking critically about the major issues facing our world today.
By exposing the hidden workings of capitalist ideology and highlighting its inherent contradictions, Žižek makes a compelling case for the need to imagine alternatives. His work serves as a call to action, urging us to move beyond the limitations of our current system and work collectively towards a more just and sustainable future.
In a world facing unprecedented challenges, from climate change to growing inequality, Žižek's ideas offer a starting point for reimagining how we organize our societies and economies. While the path forward may not be clear, "First as Tragedy, Then as Farce" makes a powerful argument that continuing with business as usual is not an option. The time for radical rethinking and collective action, Žižek suggests, is now.