Ghetto

Introduction

Mitchell Duneier's book "Ghetto" explores the complex history and evolving meaning of the term "ghetto" over the past 500 years. While today the word is often associated with impoverished, predominantly black neighborhoods in American cities, its origins and implications are far more nuanced. Duneier takes readers on a journey through time, examining how the concept of the ghetto has shaped societies, influenced policies, and impacted millions of lives.

The Origins of the Ghetto

The First Ghettos: Jewish Enclaves in Italy

The term "ghetto" has its roots in 16th century Italy, where it was first used to describe areas where Jews were forcibly confined. In 1516, Venice issued a decree that required all Jews to live in an area called the Ghetto Nuovo, named after a copper foundry (ghèto in Venetian) that previously occupied the site. This practice soon spread to other Italian cities, including Rome.

These early ghettos were characterized by:

• Forced separation from the rest of the population
• High walls surrounding the area
• Overcrowding and poor living conditions
• High mortality rates and prevalent disease

While Jews were still allowed to interact with other residents during the day, they were required to return to the ghetto at night. This segregation had profound effects on Jewish culture and community, fostering a strong sense of identity but also perpetuating poverty and hardship.

The Circular Logic of Ghettoization

One of the most insidious aspects of the ghetto system was the circular logic used to justify its existence. Christians observed that Jews living in ghettos experienced worse conditions and were less affluent than those outside. Instead of recognizing this as a result of forced segregation, many concluded that it was evidence of Jews' inherent inferiority or divine punishment.

This circular reasoning created a self-fulfilling prophecy:

1. Jews were forced into ghettos
2. Living conditions in ghettos deteriorated
3. Poor conditions were seen as justification for continued segregation
4. The cycle repeated and reinforced itself

This pattern of circular logic would continue to plague discussions of ghettos and segregated communities for centuries to come.

The Evolution of the Ghetto Concept

From Forced Segregation to Voluntary Enclaves

By the early 20th century, the meaning of "ghetto" had begun to shift. It was no longer exclusively associated with legally mandated Jewish quarters. Instead, it came to describe voluntary ethnic enclaves, particularly in immigrant neighborhoods of large cities.

German-Jewish author Louis Wirth explored this evolution in his 1928 book "The Ghetto." He noted that these newer ghettos were not created by government decree but rather by the tendency of immigrant groups to cluster together in affordable urban areas. Examples included New York's Lower East Side and Vienna's Leopoldstadt district.

The Nazi Perversion of the Ghetto

The Nazi regime in Germany twisted the concept of the ghetto to horrific ends during World War II. They revived the practice of forced segregation, creating enclosed urban areas surrounded by barbed wire where Jews were imprisoned, starved, and tortured. These Nazi-era ghettos represented a return to state-sanctioned segregation at its most extreme and brutal.

The American Ghetto: African American Neighborhoods

Post-War Appropriation of the Term

After World War II, the term "ghetto" took on new meaning in the United States as it began to be applied to predominantly African American urban neighborhoods. This shift was exemplified by the 1945 book "Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City" by Horace Cayton and St. Clair Drake.

Cayton and Drake drew parallels between the experiences of Black Americans and the historical treatment of Jews in Europe. They used the imagery of recent Jewish ghettos to criticize racism in Northern cities like Chicago, highlighting how white neighborhoods systematically excluded Black residents.

Structural Racism and Housing Discrimination

The authors exposed various mechanisms of housing discrimination that contributed to the formation of Black ghettos:

• Restrictive covenants: Legal agreements among white property owners not to sell or rent to Black people
• Violence and intimidation: Bombing and arson of homes purchased by Black families in white neighborhoods
• Real estate industry practices: Ethical codes that discouraged realtors from introducing minorities into white areas

These practices led to severe housing shortages in Black neighborhoods, resulting in overcrowding, property depreciation, and deteriorating living conditions. This, in turn, reinforced racist stereotypes about Black people being unsuitable tenants or homeowners – another example of the circular logic that had plagued ghettos for centuries.

Influential Studies and Their Impact

Gunnar Myrdal's "An American Dilemma"

In 1944, Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal published "An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy," which became the definitive text on race relations in mid-20th century America. Myrdal's work was so influential that it was even cited in the landmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision in 1954.

However, Myrdal's analysis had significant flaws:

• He focused primarily on Southern racism, overlooking systemic discrimination in the North
• He mentioned the word "ghetto" only twice in his 1,400-page book
• He failed to fully grasp the importance of housing discrimination in perpetuating racial inequality

Myrdal believed that educating white Americans about the poor living conditions of Black citizens would be enough to spark change, underestimating the deep-rooted nature of systemic racism.

Kenneth Clark's "Dark Ghetto"

Psychologist Kenneth Clark offered a more nuanced understanding of the ghetto in his 1965 book "Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power." Clark argued that Black ghettos were the result of what he called the "institutionalization of powerlessness." He highlighted how government policies and capitalist developers shaped these neighborhoods:

• Federal agencies legitimized "redlining" practices, denying loans to residents of certain areas
• Public housing projects further cemented social isolation
• Urban renewal programs displaced Black residents from their communities
• Economic opportunities were limited due to job discrimination and geographic isolation

Clark's work provided valuable insights into the complex factors perpetuating ghettos, but unfortunately, his ideas gained little traction with policymakers at the time.

The Moynihan Report and Its Consequences

In the 1960s, the most influential voice on Black ghettos came not from Black experts but from Daniel Patrick Moynihan, a white Irish-American policy adviser. Moynihan's 1965 report, officially titled "The Negro Family: The Case for National Action," became known simply as the Moynihan Report.

The report focused on:

• Statistics about Black families, including rates of single motherhood and out-of-wedlock births
• The idea that Black communities were in a state of decay due to family structure breakdown
• The argument that strengthening the family unit should be the main priority in addressing poverty and disadvantage

While well-intentioned, Moynihan's report had the effect of blaming Black people for the conditions in ghettos, ignoring the deeper structural racism that created and maintained these inequalities. This perspective would go on to shape government policies for decades to come.

Modern Interpretations and Misapplications

William Julius Wilson's Economic Focus

In the late 1970s, African American sociologist William Julius Wilson offered a new perspective on ghettos with his book "The Declining Significance of Race." Wilson argued that economic inequality, rather than race, was the primary social problem facing America.

Key points of Wilson's argument:

• He defined "ghetto" as any neighborhood where over 40% of residents lived in poverty
• He believed joblessness due to deindustrialization was a more significant factor than racism
• He advocated for race-neutral federal jobs programs as a solution

Wilson's ideas were controversial among Black scholars and leaders, who felt he was downplaying the ongoing impact of racism. However, his work gained traction with policymakers, though often in ways he hadn't intended.

Misapplication of Wilson's Ideas

Conservative politicians in the Reagan administration and later Democratic leaders like Bill Clinton co-opted and distorted Wilson's ideas to support policies that often harmed ghetto residents:

• Harsher criminal sentences
• Increased funding for police departments
• Stricter work requirements for welfare recipients

Clinton's 1996 welfare reform law, for example, forced many single mothers into low-paying jobs without addressing the underlying structural inequalities that Wilson had identified.

The Persistent Challenge of Ghettos

Despite decades of research, debate, and policy interventions, the challenges faced by residents of urban ghettos persist. Several factors contribute to this ongoing struggle:

1. Historical legacy: The long history of segregation and discrimination continues to shape urban landscapes and opportunities.

2. Systemic racism: Despite progress in some areas, deeply ingrained racial biases still influence housing, employment, education, and criminal justice systems.

3. Economic factors: Deindustrialization, globalization, and technological change have disproportionately impacted low-skilled workers in urban areas.

4. Policy failures: Many well-intentioned interventions have either fallen short or had unintended negative consequences.

5. Circular logic: The tendency to blame ghetto residents for their circumstances rather than addressing root causes perpetuates the cycle of poverty and disadvantage.

6. Lack of political will: Meaningful change often requires significant investment and long-term commitment, which can be difficult to sustain in the face of competing priorities and budget constraints.

7. Complexity of the issue: The interconnected nature of factors contributing to ghetto formation and persistence makes it challenging to develop comprehensive solutions.

Conclusion: The Ongoing Relevance of Ghetto Studies

Mitchell Duneier's exploration of the ghetto's history and evolution serves as a powerful reminder of the complex interplay between race, poverty, and urban development. By tracing the concept from its origins in 16th century Venice to its modern manifestations in American cities, Duneier illuminates the persistent patterns of segregation, discrimination, and circular logic that have shaped ghettos for centuries.

Key takeaways from the book include:

1. The importance of historical context: Understanding the long history of ghettos helps us recognize the deep-rooted nature of urban segregation and its impacts.

2. The power of language and framing: How we define and discuss ghettos has significant implications for policy and public perception.

3. The danger of oversimplification: Attempts to reduce the complexities of ghettos to single causes or simple solutions often fall short or cause unintended harm.

4. The need for diverse voices: The most valuable insights into ghettos often come from those with direct experience, yet these voices have frequently been marginalized in policy discussions.

5. The persistence of structural racism: Despite changes in laws and social norms, systemic inequalities continue to shape urban landscapes and opportunities.

6. The interconnectedness of social issues: Ghettos are not isolated problems but are intimately linked to broader questions of economic opportunity, education, criminal justice, and political power.

7. The ongoing relevance of ghetto studies: As cities continue to evolve and face new challenges, understanding the dynamics of urban segregation remains crucial for addressing inequality and promoting social justice.

Duneier's work challenges readers to look beyond surface-level explanations and quick fixes when considering the complex issue of urban ghettos. By examining the long arc of history and the multifaceted nature of segregation, "Ghetto" provides a foundation for more nuanced discussions and more effective approaches to addressing one of society's most persistent challenges.

As we continue to grapple with issues of racial justice, economic inequality, and urban development in the 21st century, the lessons drawn from the history of ghettos remain profoundly relevant. Only by understanding this history and confronting the deep-seated biases and structural inequalities that have shaped our cities can we hope to create more equitable and inclusive urban environments for all residents.