Gods of the Upper Air Summary

“How do we untangle cultural norms from universal truths? Franz Boas and his circle believed the key was observation, not assumption.”

1. Racial segregation and pseudoscience shaped post-Reconstruction America

Post-Reconstruction America witnessed racial segregation entrenched through Jim Crow laws, affecting numerous public and private spheres. These laws dictated where people lived, went to school, and could even be buried. This systematic separation starkly contradicted the ideals of equality that many Americans claimed to uphold. At the same time, society fueled exclusionary practices by championing racial pseudoscience.

Immigrants also faced prejudice as new waves of non-Anglo Europeans were seen as cultural threats. Policymakers enacted quotas like the Johnson-Reed Act of 1924, designed to limit immigration from certain nations. European colonizers’ belief in Anglo-Saxon superiority mirrored how some Americans viewed themselves, inspiring policies that defined human worth through a racial hierarchy.

Early anthropologists added their voices, claiming that societies existed on a ladder of “progress” from savagery to civilization. This framework rationalized Western dominance and discrimination, locking marginalized groups into a cycle of oppression. However, Franz Boas would later challenge this damaging narrative.

Examples

• Jim Crow laws mandated racial divisions in schools, hospitals, and public spaces.
• Immigration quotas restricted entry based on nationality, targeting Jews, Italians, Poles, and others.
• Anthropologist Lewis Henry Morgan classified societies into "savage," "barbaric," and "civilized."

2. A transformative Arctic expedition shifted Franz Boas’s worldview

Franz Boas’s journey to Baffin Island was meant to be an Arctic research expedition, but it shaped his philosophy permanently. Initially focusing on migration patterns of the Inuit, Boas became personally entangled in their way of life. This shift made him realize the limitations of his Western education when applied to a new environment.

As his survival depended on Inuit knowledge, such as preventing frostbite during treacherous sled journeys, Boas began to see life as defined by individual circumstances rather than static truths. His time observing Inuit culture revealed the relativity of education and power. It was no longer a matter of who was "sophisticated" in absolute terms but who adapted effectively.

Returning to Europe without clear career prospects, Boas maintained faith in the value of directly observed human experience. Driven by this revelation, he later returned to the United States, motivated to bring this perspective into scientific practice.

Examples

• To travel safely across icy terrain, Boas relied on Inuit expertise with dog sleds.
• He noted how Inuit survival revolved around shared adaptations to environmental challenges.
• Back in Washington, the Smithsonian's Bureau of Ethnology lacked funding for his work, but Boas determined to try again later.

3. Boas redefined anthropology with cultural relativism

Franz Boas challenged his contemporaries' habit of ranking cultures from primitive to civilized. His work emphasized examining individual cultural histories rather than creating broad evolutionary schemes. He believed that each society must be understood in its own context instead of measured against Western norms.

Conducting fieldwork among the Bella Coola and other Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest, Boas cataloged unique traditions rather than categorizing artifacts within a presumed hierarchy. This led him to advocate for detailed data collection before drawing scientific conclusions. His inductive approach aimed to eliminate Eurocentric biases in anthropology.

Boas’s theories directly opposed conventional ideas of universal human progress. Instead, he proposed that cultures adapt in diverse ways based on history, geography, and circumstances. This principle of cultural relativism remains one of his most enduring ideas.

Examples

• Boas noticed the Bella Coola had unique myths distinct from neighboring Salish groups.
• He critiqued the Smithsonian for presenting Native American artifacts as evidence of an evolutionary hierarchy.
• The practice of using forks in Western dining highlighted cultural adaptations rather than inherent superiority.

4. Measuring immigrant bodies dismantled racial stereotypes

In 1908, Franz Boas undertook a groundbreaking study on over 17,000 people in New York City to investigate the effects of immigration. Using anthropometry, or body measurements, Boas sought to see whether purported racial characteristics were inborn or shaped by environmental factors.

The results defied expectations. Boas found that immigrant children’s physical traits aligned more closely with U.S.-born children than with their ethnic origins. Traits previously thought to define race appeared malleable, influenced by diet and living conditions. These findings directly challenged racial pseudoscience by demonstrating race lacked permanence as a biological trait.

Despite his findings, American eugenicist Madison Grant’s book, The Passing of the Great Race, gained traction at elite institutions, promoting pseudoscientific racism. Boas spent the rest of his career tirelessly opposing such discriminatory ideas.

Examples

• Boas’s study included Jewish, Polish, Italian, and Hungarian immigrant children across New York.
• He observed physical traits like skull shapes change in response to environmental conditions.
• Eugenicist texts claiming racial purity persisted despite these scientific refutations.

5. Margaret Mead’s fieldwork explored cultural adolescence

Margaret Mead, one of Boas’s students, achieved fame by questioning Western assumptions about adolescence. Her curiosity stemmed partly from her own youthful frustrations. Inspired by Boas’s teachings, she traveled to Samoa to study how societies approached coming of age.

Mead found that adolescent turmoil often linked to social expectations rather than biological constants. In Samoa, girls transitioned into adulthood with much less emotional strife compared to their American counterparts. Mead’s findings popularized the idea that adolescence, like race, is heavily shaped by cultural norms.

Her writings not only propelled Mead’s career but reshaped public understanding of identity. Her questions on gender roles and sexuality challenged rigid Western ideals and opened a broader conversation.

Examples

• Mead recorded interviews detailing the practical, less emotional upbringing of Samoan youth.
• Her book, Coming of Age in Samoa, became essential reading for discussions on cultural diversity.
• Her work aligned more with polyamorous practices, revealing her own discontent with traditional constraints.

6. Gender became a cultural construct in Mead’s later work

Continuing her exploration, Mead tied Boas’s cultural relativism to gender roles. Her studies in New Guinea revealed societies where gendered behaviors differed vastly from Western norms. Men engaged in traditionally “female” roles, and vice versa, providing evidence against biologically fixed gender roles.

Mead proposed that Western society had constructed its strict male-female divide over generations. By contrast, other cultures showed fluidity in duties, expectations, and identities. Her book, Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies, argued for a societal rethinking of gender as a social construct.

Her research foreshadowed modern understandings of gender identity, laying groundwork for movements advocating individual self-expression beyond traditional roles.

Examples

• New Guinea societies had men adopting feminine adornments and social tasks.
• Mead observed women successfully leading fishing ventures.
• Her popular articles expanded these theories to everyday readers, sparking public debate.

7. Zora Neale Hurston redefined African diaspora studies

Zora Neale Hurston, best known as a writer, was also an anthropologist who enriched Boas’s legacy. She argued that African American and diaspora cultures deserved respect as dynamic entities—not mere remnants of lost African traditions.

In her book, Mules and Men, she preserved folklore and practices of southern Black life, presenting them as textured expressions of culture. Her research in Haiti, meanwhile, delved into beliefs like zombification. Rather than dismiss the concept, Hurston viewed zombies as cultural symbols reflecting societal anxieties.

Through her lens, Hurston revealed how even marginalized societies create distinct frameworks for interpreting life’s chaos. Her work remains influential for its celebration of Black traditions.

Examples

• Hurston collected Florida folk tales emphasizing Black cultural vibrancy.
• She documented Haitian zombie rituals, linking them to societal narratives.
• Boas influenced her commitment to treating diaspora communities as active cultures.

8. Boasian anthropologists faced sharp criticism over time

Boas’s circle was both celebrated and attacked during their lifetimes. Conservative thinkers labeled them immoral and misguided for challenging racial and gender norms. Later, second-wave feminists accused them of reinforcing gender stereotypes, while evolving anthropology questioned sweeping generalizations they had proposed.

Despite debates, their central ethos endures: dismantling the idea that Western civilization serves as a universal ideal. Their resilience in opposing prejudice laid groundwork for our broader understanding of equality and tolerance.

Examples

• Betty Friedan critiqued Mead’s portrayals of women as overly tied to biological processes.
• Scholars in later decades moved beyond studying cultures in isolation, shifting focus to global interconnectivity.
• Boas himself struggled to win acceptance for his ideas during America’s eugenics boom.

9. Their legacy still inspires tolerance today

The ideas first championed by Boas, Mead, and their peers resonate deeply in today’s fight against discrimination. Their assertion that no culture is inherently superior invites reflection in an era marked by persistent biases.

From racist political rhetoric to debates about gender inclusivity, their work reminds us to respect varied human experiences. As anthropology evolves, their fight against unfounded hierarchies remains critical for fostering global empathy.

Examples

• Donald Trump's 2016 campaign rhetoric stirred anxieties rooted in racial biases Boas fought against.
• Gender discussions today center around cultural constructs Mead examined decades earlier.
• Black cultural studies owe much to Hurston’s groundbreaking approach to marginalized narratives.

Takeaways

1. Challenge stereotypes by prioritizing direct observation and interaction over assumptions.
2. Embrace cultural relativism in everyday life by respecting differences instead of ranking them.
3. Foster inclusivity by questioning societal constructs like race, gender, and tradition.