Introduction
In the early 20th century, the United States was far from being the global center of modern art that it is today. In fact, America was largely hostile to the revolutionary artistic movements emerging in Europe. The works of Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, and other modern masters were often met with derision, confusion, and even outright hostility by American critics, the public, and even mental health professionals. Many viewed modern art as a threat to societal values and preferred the classical works of Old Masters like Rembrandt and Velázquez.
"Picasso's War" by Hugh Eakin tells the fascinating story of how modern art, particularly the works of Pablo Picasso, eventually conquered America. It's a tale of passionate collectors, visionary dealers, and determined museum curators who fought against prevailing attitudes to bring cutting-edge European art to American shores. This book takes us on a journey from the first glimpses of Picasso's work in New York to the eventual triumph of modern art in the United States, forever changing the cultural landscape of the nation.
A First Glimpse of Picasso
The story begins in early 1911, in a small New York City art space known as 291. Here, a successful 41-year-old lawyer named John Quinn stood transfixed before a charcoal sketch titled "Standing Female Nude" by Pablo Picasso. This exhibition, though modest in scale, marked a significant moment in American art history – it was the first-ever Picasso show in the United States.
Quinn, already well-connected in literary circles and known for supporting writers like W.B. Yeats and James Joyce, found himself both puzzled and intrigued by Picasso's cubist drawings. While one critic likened the nude sketch to "a fire escape, and not a good fire escape at that," Quinn recognized something revolutionary in Picasso's work. He was impressed by the artist's daring approach and disregard for public opinion.
This encounter sparked a passion in Quinn that would drive him to become one of the most important early collectors of modern art in America. His journey reflects the broader struggle to introduce and legitimize modern art in a country that was still deeply conservative in its artistic tastes.
The Armory Show: A Turning Point
Quinn's newfound passion for modern art quickly evolved into an all-consuming pursuit. He saw it as his mission to collect and promote modern art in America, believing that someone had to take the initiative in the face of institutional indifference. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, for instance, had hardly any significant 19th-century works in its collection at the time.
In 1913, Quinn played a crucial role in organizing a landmark event that would shake the foundations of the American art world: the Armory Show. Held at the headquarters of an Irish American infantry regiment on Lexington Avenue in New York City, this exhibition was designed to chart the progression of modern art from Impressionism to Cubism.
The Armory Show featured works by Claude Monet and Pierre-Auguste Renoir, leading up to more radical pieces like Marcel Duchamp's "Nude Descending a Staircase" and Constantin Brâncuși's modernist sculptures. Quinn gave a rousing speech to open the exhibition, hoping it would mark the beginning of America's embrace of modern art.
However, the reality was far from Quinn's optimistic vision. While thousands flocked to see the show daily, the general reaction was one of laughter, scorn, and hostility. Even former president Theodore Roosevelt, a friend of Quinn's, dismissed the artworks as examples of the "lunatic fringe." Critics used words like "ridiculous" and "poisonous" to describe the exhibition, and the New York Times ran an op-ed claiming that modern art was a movement meant to "disrupt, degrade, if not destroy" society.
Despite the negative reception, the Armory Show was a crucial first step in introducing modern art to a wider American audience. It sparked conversations and controversies that would continue for years to come, gradually paving the way for greater acceptance of new artistic forms.
Breaking Down Barriers: The Import Tax Battle
While the Armory Show was a significant cultural event, Quinn recognized that there were systemic obstacles preventing the flow of modern art into America. One of the most significant barriers was a prohibitive import tax on foreign art created within the past 20 years. This tax, originally intended to support American artists, had the unintended effect of isolating the US art scene from international influences.
Quinn, leveraging his status as a respected lawyer, successfully lobbied the government to repeal this punitive law in 1913. This victory was a game-changer for the American art market. It opened the doors for European dealers to expand their reach and made it financially feasible for American collectors to acquire recent works by European masters.
This change in import regulations was a crucial step in bridging the gap between the European and American art scenes. It allowed for a freer exchange of ideas and artworks, setting the stage for the gradual acceptance and eventual triumph of modern art in America.
The Dealers: Kahnweiler and Rosenberg
As the barriers to importing modern art began to fall, two European art dealers emerged as key players in promoting and selling the works of Pablo Picasso and other modern artists: Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler and Paul Rosenberg.
Kahnweiler, a young German-Jewish art dealer, first encountered Picasso in 1907 in the artist's squalid Montmartre studio. Despite the chaotic surroundings, Kahnweiler recognized Picasso's genius and quickly signed him to a contract. Kahnweiler's approach to selling art was low-key and minimalist – he simply hung the works in his sparse gallery and let the art speak for itself.
Under Kahnweiler's representation, Picasso's reputation grew, particularly among wealthy collectors like Russian textile baron Sergei Shchukin. Kahnweiler also represented other leading modern artists like Georges Braque and André Derain, becoming the top dealer in Paris.
Paul Rosenberg, on the other hand, was Kahnweiler's opposite in many ways. Born in Paris but also from a Jewish background, Rosenberg enjoyed hosting grand openings and playing the role of a gracious host. His more extravagant approach to selling art contrasted sharply with Kahnweiler's understated style.
The outbreak of World War I in 1914 dramatically altered the landscape for both dealers. Kahnweiler, being German, was forced to leave France. His massive collection, including hundreds of works by Picasso and other modern masters, was confiscated and later auctioned off. This turn of events led Picasso to switch his representation to Rosenberg, who would go on to promote the artist aggressively both in Europe and abroad.
The contrasting approaches of Kahnweiler and Rosenberg, and the impact of world events on their careers, illustrate the complex and often tumultuous world of the early modern art market. Their stories are inextricably linked with the journey of modern art from Europe to America.
John Quinn's Legacy
Back in New York, John Quinn's passion for collecting modern art had reached fever pitch. By 1919, when he received a grim cancer diagnosis giving him only six years to live, Quinn had amassed what was likely the largest collection of modern art in America. His Upper West Side apartment was crammed with paintings, limited only by space and money.
Quinn had developed strong relationships with European dealers like Rosenberg and had even visited Picasso at his home. However, the American press continued to view modern art with suspicion, often labeling it as dangerous, degenerate, or "Bolshevik" art that could corrupt American minds.
When Quinn passed away in 1924, his collection numbered over 2,500 works, most of which would be considered masterpieces today. However, at the time of his death, these works held little value in the eyes of the lawyers handling his estate. With no wife or children to inherit, and no American museums interested in modern art, many of Quinn's prized possessions ended up being auctioned off and dispersed around the world.
Quinn's untimely death and the fate of his collection highlighted the still-prevalent gap between European and American attitudes towards modern art. It also served as a wake-up call for those who recognized the importance of preserving and promoting modern art in America.
Birth of the Museum of Modern Art
The dispersal of Quinn's collection deeply troubled three women who had been close to him and shared his appreciation for modern art: Lillie P. Bliss, Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, and Mary Sullivan. Dismayed by the inability to keep Quinn's collection intact and in New York as he had hoped, these three high-society women decided to take action.
In 1929, Bliss, Rockefeller, and Sullivan founded the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City. Their goal was to create a public home for modern art in America, filling the void left by more traditional institutions like the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
To lead their new museum, they chose 27-year-old Alfred Barr, who had developed one of America's first undergraduate courses on modern art. Barr, along with his wife Margaret Scolari, would go on to revolutionize the art world and transform MoMA from a small space on the 12th floor of the Heckscher Building into a sleek, ultra-modern architectural marvel on 53rd Street.
Alfred Barr's Revolutionary Approach
Under Barr's leadership, MoMA's very first show was a resounding success, both with audiences and critics. Featuring nearly a hundred paintings from four artists – Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne, and Seurat – the exhibition was a true blockbuster, with lines stretching around the corner onto Fifth Avenue every day.
Barr's approach to exhibiting art was revolutionary in several ways:
Display Style: Instead of the traditional European "salon style" of stacking paintings from floor to ceiling, Barr introduced the concept of white walls with paintings spaced apart and displayed at eye level. This approach, now standard in most modern museums, was completely new at the time.
Educational Focus: Barr saw the museum as an educational institution. He provided texts and booklets to guide viewers through exhibitions, explaining how the art they were seeing fit into the broader context of art history. The now-ubiquitous descriptive labels next to artworks in museums were Barr's innovation.
Contextualizing Modern Art: Barr sought to show the evolution of modern art, helping viewers understand how it connected to earlier artistic traditions. This approach aimed to make modern art more accessible and less intimidating to the general public.
Barr's innovative methods and the success of MoMA's early exhibitions marked a turning point in the American public's relationship with modern art. The museum became a powerful force in shaping taste and understanding, gradually shifting perceptions of modern art from confusion and hostility to appreciation and enthusiasm.
Modern Art in a Changing World
As MoMA was establishing itself in New York, political changes in Europe were inadvertently contributing to the growing acceptance of modern art in America. The rise of totalitarian regimes in Germany and Russia led to the suppression of modern art in these countries, with works being labeled as "degenerate" and forcibly removed from museums and galleries.
This persecution of modern art in Europe had two significant effects on its reception in America:
Artistic Exodus: Many European artists fled to the United States to escape persecution, bringing their talents and ideas with them. This influx of creative minds helped to enrich and diversify the American art scene.
Symbolic Significance: Modern art began to be seen as a symbol of freedom and democracy in contrast to the oppressive regimes that sought to suppress it. This association helped to improve its standing in the eyes of many Americans.
The Van Gogh Exhibition: A Turning Point
One of Alfred Barr's most significant achievements at MoMA was a landmark exhibition focused solely on Vincent van Gogh. This show was revolutionary in its approach and had a profound impact on the American public's perception of modern art.
Barr's curatorial strategy for the Van Gogh exhibition was unique:
Personal Narrative: Instead of traditional curatorial texts, Barr used quotes from Van Gogh's letters to his brother Theo to guide viewers through the exhibition. This approach humanized the artist and provided insight into his thoughts and creative process.
Chronological Journey: The exhibition was arranged to show the progression of Van Gogh's work over time, allowing visitors to see the evolution of his style and technique.
Emotional Connection: By combining Van Gogh's powerful artworks with his personal words, the exhibition created a deeply moving experience for viewers. It helped people connect with the artist on an emotional level, breaking down barriers of understanding.
The Van Gogh show was a massive success, drawing large crowds and receiving positive reviews. It marked a significant shift in how Americans perceived modern art, moving from skepticism and derision to empathy and appreciation.
The Quest for Picasso
From the early days of MoMA, Alfred Barr had set his sights on organizing a major exhibition of Pablo Picasso's work. Barr saw Picasso as a key figure in modern art, whose diverse body of work could help viewers understand the evolution of modern artistic styles.
However, bringing a Picasso exhibition to America proved to be a challenging task:
Artist's Reluctance: Picasso himself was often embroiled in personal crises, making it difficult to secure his cooperation for a major exhibition.
Dealer's Hesitation: Paul Rosenberg, Picasso's primary dealer, was hesitant to send a large number of valuable paintings across the Atlantic, especially after years of struggling to break into the American market.
Logistical Challenges: Organizing such a large-scale international exhibition involved numerous logistical hurdles, from shipping valuable artworks to securing loans from various collectors and institutions.
Despite these obstacles, Barr persisted in his efforts to bring Picasso to MoMA. His determination would eventually pay off in a spectacular way.
Picasso: Forty Years of His Art
In November 1939, as MoMA prepared to open its magnificent new headquarters on 53rd Street, Barr finally realized his dream of mounting a comprehensive Picasso exhibition. However, the outbreak of World War II added a new dimension to the project.
The looming threat of war in Europe actually worked in Barr's favor:
Safeguarding Art: European collectors and dealers, including Paul Rosenberg, saw sending artworks to America as a way to protect them from the dangers of war.
Expanded Scope: The precarious situation in Europe allowed Barr to secure loans of artworks that might not have been available under normal circumstances.
The resulting exhibition, "Picasso: Forty Years of His Art," was a triumph:
Comprehensive Overview: The show featured over 360 works spanning Picasso's entire career, offering an unprecedented look at the artist's development and diverse styles.
Record-Breaking Attendance: The exhibition broke all previous attendance records at MoMA.
National Tour: After its run in New York, the exhibition toured 22 cities across the country, bringing Picasso's work to a vast American audience.
Critical Acclaim: Even conservative critics who had previously dismissed modern art found themselves impressed by the breadth and depth of Picasso's work.
The Picasso exhibition had a profound impact on American culture:
Influence on Fashion: Picasso's imagery began appearing in shop window displays, and designers drew inspiration from his work for their new collections.
Inspiring New Artists: The show was foundational for the next generation of American artists, including figures like Roy Lichtenstein and Jackson Pollock.
Shifting Public Perception: The exhibition played a crucial role in changing how Americans viewed modern art, moving it from the fringes to the mainstream of cultural discourse.
The Triumph of Modern Art in America
The success of the Picasso exhibition at MoMA marked a turning point in the American reception of modern art. It was the culmination of decades of effort by passionate individuals like John Quinn, innovative curators like Alfred Barr, and the support of forward-thinking patrons and collectors.
Several factors contributed to this shift in perception:
Educational Approach: MoMA's focus on educating the public about modern art helped demystify it and make it more accessible.
Historical Context: The persecution of modern artists in totalitarian regimes lent modern art an aura of freedom and democracy that resonated with American values.
Cultural Shift: As more Americans were exposed to modern art through exhibitions and media coverage, it gradually became a part of the cultural landscape.
Economic Factors: The removal of import taxes on modern art and the influx of European artists during World War II enriched the American art scene.
Institutional Support: The establishment of MoMA and other modern art institutions provided legitimacy and a permanent home for these works.
The triumph of modern art in America was not just about changing tastes in art. It represented a broader cultural shift, opening up new ways of seeing and thinking about the world. It paved the way for America to become a global center of artistic innovation in the post-war years.
Conclusion
"Picasso's War" tells the story of how modern art, once derided and misunderstood, came to be embraced by American audiences. It's a tale of persistence, vision, and cultural transformation.
Key figures like John Quinn, Alfred Barr, and Paul Rosenberg played crucial roles in bringing modern art to America:
John Quinn: As one of the first American collectors of modern art, Quinn helped introduce these works to the US and fought to remove legal barriers to their importation.
Alfred Barr: Through his innovative curatorial approaches at MoMA, Barr educated the public about modern art and helped make it accessible to a wider audience.
Paul Rosenberg: As Picasso's dealer, Rosenberg played a crucial role in bringing the artist's work to America, culminating in the landmark 1939 exhibition.
The journey of modern art in America was not a smooth one. It faced resistance from critics, skepticism from the public, and institutional indifference. However, through the efforts of passionate individuals and the gradual shift in cultural attitudes, modern art eventually found a home in America.
The story of Picasso's conquest of America is more than just an art historical narrative. It reflects broader themes of cultural exchange, the impact of world events on art, and the power of persistence in the face of skepticism. It shows how art can challenge, inspire, and ultimately transform a society's way of seeing the world.
Today, as we walk through the modern and contemporary art wings of American museums, we are benefiting from the groundwork laid by Quinn, Barr, and others who fought to bring these revolutionary works to American shores. Their legacy continues to shape our understanding and appreciation of art, reminding us of the transformative power of new ideas and fresh perspectives.