The Nordic countries of Scandinavia - Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland - have long been viewed as a sort of utopia by many outsiders. With their high standards of living, strong social safety nets, gender equality, and picturesque landscapes, these nations are often held up as models of how to create a nearly perfect society. But is this idealized image accurate? In "The Almost Nearly Perfect People," journalist Michael Booth sets out on a journey through the five Nordic countries to explore the realities behind the myth and uncover the complexities of Scandinavian culture.
Booth, a British writer who has lived in Denmark for many years, brings an insider-outsider perspective to his exploration. He combines historical research, interviews with locals, and his own wry observations to paint a nuanced portrait of modern Scandinavia - one that acknowledges the region's many strengths while also highlighting some of its quirks, contradictions and challenges. The result is an engaging travelogue that takes readers beyond the stereotypes to reveal the true character of these fascinating northern European nations.
The Nordic Model: Equality and Social Cohesion
One of the defining features of the Nordic countries is their commitment to equality and social cohesion. This is reflected in their economic policies and social structures in several key ways:
Wealth Distribution
According to the Gini coefficient, which measures income inequality within a nation, the five Nordic countries consistently rank among the most equal societies in the world. The income gap between the richest and poorest citizens is much smaller than in most other developed nations. This relatively even economic playing field may be partly rooted in the egalitarian traditions of the Vikings, who valued equality among free men despite their violent reputation.
Gender Equality
The Nordic nations are also global leaders when it comes to gender equality. In recent years, Norway, Sweden, Iceland and Denmark have all been ranked among the top places in the world to be a woman or mother. Women in these countries enjoy high levels of workforce participation, political representation, and social support. Finland was the first European country to grant women the right to vote in 1906. Today, it's not unusual for women to make up half of the Finnish parliament.
The Welfare State
A cornerstone of the Nordic model is the comprehensive welfare state, which provides citizens with extensive social services and benefits. This includes universal healthcare, free education through university, generous parental leave, subsidized childcare, unemployment insurance, and pensions. While the specific policies vary somewhat between countries, the overall philosophy is one of collective responsibility and ensuring a high quality of life for all members of society.
High Taxes, High Trust
To support their extensive public services, the Nordic countries have some of the highest tax rates in the world. In Denmark, for instance, income tax rates can reach up to 72%. However, there is generally a high level of trust in government institutions and a belief that taxes are being used to benefit society as a whole. This social trust is a key ingredient that allows the Nordic model to function.
The Middle Class Society
The combination of wealth redistribution, social services, and egalitarian values has resulted in what some describe as "middle class societies" in the Nordic countries. Extreme wealth and extreme poverty are relatively rare, with the vast majority of citizens enjoying a comfortable standard of living. This contributes to a sense of social cohesion and shared experience among the population.
While this system has many advantages, it's not without its critics or challenges. Some argue that high taxes stifle innovation and entrepreneurship. There are also ongoing debates about the sustainability of generous welfare states in the face of aging populations and global economic pressures. Nevertheless, the Nordic approach to equality and social cohesion remains influential and admired around the world.
Cultural Traits: Modesty, Reserve, and Jante Law
While each Nordic country has its own distinct culture, there are some common traits and values that tend to be shared across the region. Many of these stem from historical influences like Lutheranism and traditional rural life:
Modesty and Restraint
Scandinavians are often characterized by their modesty and emotional restraint. This is particularly pronounced in Finland, where being shy or reserved (ujo in Finnish) is seen as a positive trait indicating modesty rather than a social deficiency. Finns are famously untalkative - the author recounts an anecdote of two acquaintances helping each other during a snowstorm without exchanging a single word.
Competence Over Confidence
In Sweden, there's a concept called "duktig" which refers to a kind of quiet competence and responsibility. It's about getting things done effectively without drawing attention to oneself or creating conflict. This can sometimes result in an aversion to assertive leadership, leading some Swedish companies to hire Danish managers when more forceful decision-making is needed.
Lutheran Influence
Although relatively few Scandinavians are actively religious today, the historical influence of Lutheranism has left a lasting mark on the culture. Luther's teachings emphasized modesty, hard work, and suspicion of worldly pleasures. This austere Protestant ethos still shapes social norms and attitudes in subtle ways.
Jante Law
Perhaps the most famous encapsulation of Nordic social attitudes is the concept of Jante Law. This comes from a 1933 novel by Danish-Norwegian author Aksel Sandemose, which described the unwritten rules of behavior in a small town called Jante. The core message of Jante Law is that individuals should not think they are special or better than others. Some key tenets include:
- You shall not believe that you are more important than we (the collective) are
- You shall not believe that you are someone
- You shall not believe that you are smarter than we are
While few modern Scandinavians would say they strictly adhere to Jante Law, its spirit of egalitarianism and discouragement of individual boasting remains influential. It reflects a culture that values conformity and the collective good over standing out or pursuing personal glory.
These cultural traits have both positive and negative aspects. On one hand, they contribute to social harmony, cooperation, and a lack of pretension. On the other hand, they can sometimes stifle individuality, ambition, and open communication. As with many aspects of Nordic society, there's a delicate balance between communal values and personal freedom.
National Identity and Immigration Challenges
The Nordic countries have traditionally been very homogeneous societies with strong national identities. This has contributed to social cohesion but also created challenges as the region becomes more diverse:
Shared Cultural Context
Anthropologist Edward T. Hall would classify Nordic cultures as "high-context," meaning that people share similar backgrounds and experiences, allowing for more implicit communication. This is especially true in a country like Finland, where the immigrant population is only about 2.5% and the culture is notably reserved.
National Pride
Many Nordic countries have strong traditions celebrating their national identity. Norway's Constitution Day on May 17th, for instance, features parades and street parties where people of all backgrounds come together in a joyful expression of "Norwegianness."
Challenges with Diversity
However, this strong sense of national identity can also lead to tensions around immigration and multiculturalism. In recent years, far-right political parties opposing immigration have gained ground in several Nordic countries:
- In Norway, the Progress Party (which once had a leader declare all Muslims were terrorists) won 16.3% of the vote in parliamentary elections.
- Sweden's right-wing Sweden Democrats won 5.7% of the vote in 2010 on an anti-immigration platform.
- In Denmark, the Danish People's Party, known for inflammatory anti-Muslim rhetoric, became part of the governing coalition in 2001.
The Breivik Attack
The most extreme manifestation of anti-immigrant sentiment was the 2011 terrorist attack by Anders Breivik in Norway, which killed 77 people. While Breivik was a lone extremist, his actions highlighted underlying currents of xenophobia and Islamophobia in parts of Norwegian society.
Ongoing Debates
The Nordic countries are now grappling with how to maintain their strong welfare states and social cohesion while also becoming more diverse and multicultural societies. There are ongoing debates about integration, assimilation, and what it means to be "Nordic" in the 21st century.
This tension between shared national identity and increasing diversity is a challenge that many countries face, but it's particularly pronounced in the Nordic region given its history of homogeneity and strong social models built on trust and shared values.
Iceland: Where America Meets Scandinavia
Iceland occupies a unique position both geographically and culturally, blending elements of Scandinavian and American influence:
Viking Heritage and Myths
Icelanders maintain a strong connection to their Viking roots and natural environment. This is reflected in widespread belief in elves or "hidden people" - a 1998 poll found that 54.4% of Icelanders believed in their existence (more than believed in God). The harsh landscape of volcanoes, glaciers, and extreme weather has shaped a resilient national character.
The World's First Parliament
Iceland is home to the Althing, founded in 930 AD and considered the world's first parliament. Fittingly, it's located in Thingvellir, a rift valley formed by the separating tectonic plates of Europe and North America - symbolizing Iceland's position between two worlds.
American Influence
During World War II, Iceland was occupied by American forces, bringing prosperity and cultural changes to the previously isolated island. This may have instilled some of the "American Dream" mentality that later manifested in Iceland's aggressive financial expansion.
Economic Boom and Bust
In the early 2000s, Iceland's banks engaged in risky international investments, borrowing over $140 billion (ten times the country's GDP) between 2003 and 2008. When the global financial crisis hit, this led to a spectacular economic crash. Inflation reached 20% and unemployment soared from 2% to over 10%.
Resilience and Recovery
Despite the severity of the crash, Iceland has shown remarkable resilience. The economy has largely recovered, demonstrating the same toughness that allowed Icelanders to thrive in their challenging natural environment for centuries.
Iceland's story is one of a small nation punching above its weight, for better and worse. It combines Scandinavian social values with American-style ambition and risk-taking, creating a unique hybrid culture at the top of the world.
Norway: Nature, Oil, and Contradictions
Norway stands out among Nordic countries for its stunning natural beauty and immense oil wealth, creating some interesting cultural dynamics:
Connection to Nature
Norwegians have a deep attachment to their dramatic landscapes of fjords, mountains, and forests. This is reflected in their naming conventions (many surnames derive from landscape features) and their enthusiasm for outdoor activities. The popularity of slow TV programs showing train journeys through the countryside speaks to this national fascination with nature.
Rural Identity
Despite being a wealthy, modern nation, Norway maintains a strong rural identity. It's the least densely populated country in Europe, with just 11 people per square kilometer. Many Norwegians feel a disconnect from Oslo, the capital city, which only gained that status about a century ago after long periods of Danish and Swedish rule.
Oil Wealth
The discovery of North Sea oil in 1969 transformed Norway's economy. Today, the country produces around 730 million barrels of oil annually and has the world's largest sovereign wealth fund, valued at over $600 billion in 2011. This fund is state-controlled, allowing oil profits to benefit the entire population.
Balancing Act
Norway faces the challenge of balancing its role as a major oil producer with its commitment to environmental protection and sustainability. This creates some cognitive dissonance in a culture that prides itself on its connection to unspoiled nature.
Social Equality vs. Resource Wealth
While Norway maintains strong social democratic policies, its vast oil wealth creates potential for greater inequality than in other Nordic countries. Managing this tension is an ongoing political challenge.
Norway's unique combination of pristine wilderness, rural traditions, and immense resource wealth makes it a land of contrasts. It's both deeply connected to its natural environment and a global energy powerhouse, both egalitarian and incredibly rich. Navigating these contradictions is key to understanding modern Norwegian society.
Finland: Extremes and Resilience
Finland stands out among Nordic countries for its unique history and national character, shaped by its position between East and West:
Historical Turbulence
Finland has a complex history of foreign rule and conflict. It was part of Sweden for centuries before becoming an autonomous region of the Russian Empire in 1809. After gaining independence in 1917, it fought a brief but brutal civil war, then fiercely resisted Soviet invasion during the Winter War of 1939-40. During the Cold War, Finland maintained a delicate neutrality between East and West.
Sisu: National Toughness
These historical challenges have instilled a national trait known as sisu - a combination of grit, determination, and resilience. This quality helped Finns survive harsh winters, resist larger invading armies, and build a prosperous modern nation despite limited natural resources.
High Gun Ownership, High Murder Rate
Somewhat surprisingly, Finland has the third-highest rate of gun ownership in the world (after the US and Yemen) and the highest murder rate in Western Europe. This may be partly explained by high levels of the "warrior gene" enzyme found in the Finnish population, which is linked to both violence and alcohol consumption.
World-Class Education
Despite these statistics, Finland is also home to what are consistently ranked as the world's best schools. This is attributed to factors like universal state education and high standards for teachers, who are required to hold master's degrees.
Language and Communication
The Finnish language is unique in Europe, being non-Indo-European and lacking grammatical gender. Finns are famously reserved in communication, taking reticence to an extreme even by Nordic standards.
Contrasts and Contradictions
Finland embodies many contrasts: it's a peaceful, highly educated society with high rates of gun ownership and alcohol consumption. It's culturally conservative in many ways but politically progressive. It maintained independence through skillful diplomacy while fostering a culture of toughness and self-reliance.
These seeming contradictions make Finland a fascinating case study in how historical circumstances and national character interact to shape a society. The country's ability to turn potential weaknesses into strengths - like using its harsh climate as motivation to build excellent indoor facilities and education systems - speaks to the adaptability and resilience at the core of Finnish culture.
Sweden: Progressive Facade, Controversial Past
Sweden is often seen as the poster child for Scandinavian progressivism, but its 20th-century history reveals some surprising contradictions:
One-Party Dominance
For much of the 20th century, Sweden was essentially a one-party state. The Swedish Social Democratic Party (SSDP) first came to power in 1920 and then ruled almost continuously from 1932 to 1976. No other party won a second term until 2010.
The People's Home
Under SSDP rule, Sweden developed its comprehensive welfare state, known as Folkhemmet or "The People's Home." This system provided extensive benefits like full employment, universal healthcare, and elimination of homelessness. However, it also led to a high degree of state control over many aspects of life.
Conformity and Control
Some critics, like British author Roland Huntford, argued that the level of social conformity in Sweden bordered on totalitarianism. The government's ability to implement major changes (like switching from left- to right-side driving in 1967) with little opposition demonstrated the population's remarkable compliance.
World War II Neutrality
Sweden remained officially neutral during World War II but sold large amounts of iron ore to Nazi Germany. This allowed Sweden to prosper economically while much of Europe was devastated by war.
Eugenics Program
Perhaps most shockingly, Sweden ran a state eugenics program from 1935 to 1976. This involved the forced sterilization of thousands of people deemed "inferior," with the goal of improving the Nordic race. Disturbingly, sterilizations actually increased in the years immediately following World War II, even after the horrors of Nazi racial policies had been revealed.
Cultural Exports
Despite these controversial aspects of its past, Sweden has become a major cultural exporter. It's the third-largest exporter of music globally (after the US and UK) and has produced internationally popular authors like Stieg Larsson.
Modern Challenges
Today, Sweden grapples with integrating a growing immigrant population and maintaining its generous welfare state in the face of economic pressures. The rise of right-wing parties like the Sweden Democrats shows that the country is not immune to the populist trends seen elsewhere in Europe.
Sweden's history demonstrates that even the most seemingly progressive societies can have dark chapters in their past. The country's journey from near-autocratic social democracy to a more diverse, globally integrated nation offers valuable lessons about the complexities of building and maintaining an egalitarian society.
Denmark: The Happiest People in the World?
Denmark consistently ranks as one of the happiest countries in the world, despite some counterintuitive factors:
High Taxes, Average Services
Denmark has some of the highest tax rates globally, with income taxes ranging from 58% to 72%. Yet, its public services and infrastructure are not necessarily superior to those of countries with lower taxes. Denmark ranks 16th on the UN Human Development Index, behind countries like Ireland and South Korea.
Health Paradoxes
Surprisingly, Denmark has the lowest life expectancy in Scandinavia and the highest cancer rates in the world. This seems at odds with its reputation for high quality of life.
Historical Losses
Denmark was once a major regional power, ruling much of Scandinavia. Over centuries, it lost territory to Germany, Norway, and Sweden, and suffered setbacks like the British bombardment of Copenhagen in 1801 and Nazi occupation during World War II.
Social Cohesion
Despite these challenges, Danes have developed a strong sense of social cohesion. A high percentage of adults belong to clubs or associations, fostering a sense of community involvement.
Hygge
Central to Danish culture is the concept of hygge, which roughly translates to "coziness" but encompasses a broader sense of comfortable conviviality and well-being. It emphasizes equality, relaxation, and enjoying simple pleasures together.
Contentment vs. Ambition
Some argue that the Danish emphasis on social equality and hygge can discourage individual ambition or standing out. However, this also seems to contribute to a general sense of contentment and lack of envy.
Trust in Institutions
Danes generally have high trust in their government and social institutions. This allows the high-tax, high-service model to function more smoothly than it might in countries with less social trust.
Realistic Expectations
Part of Danish happiness may stem from having realistic expectations. Rather than constantly striving for more, there's a cultural tendency to appreciate what one has.
The Danish case suggests that happiness on a national scale is complex and not always tied to obvious material factors. Strong social bonds, a sense of equality, and a culture that values contentment over constant striving seem to be key ingredients in the Danish recipe for happiness. While this model may not be easily exportable to other cultures, it offers interesting insights into alternative measures of national success beyond pure economic growth.
Conclusion: The Complexities of Nordic Society
As Michael Booth's journey through the Nordic countries reveals, the reality of Scandinavian society is far more complex and nuanced than the utopian image often presented to the outside world. While these nations have undoubtedly achieved remarkable successes in many areas, they also face significant challenges and contradictions.
Strengths of the Nordic Model
The Nordic countries have much to be proud of:
- They consistently rank among the most equal societies in the world, both in terms of wealth distribution and gender equality.
- Their comprehensive welfare states provide a high level of social security and quality of life for citizens.
- They've achieved impressive educational outcomes, particularly in Finland.
- They maintain strong democracies with high levels of social trust and civic engagement.
- They've found ways to balance economic prosperity with environmental stewardship (though Norway's oil wealth complicates this picture).
Challenges and Contradictions
However, the book also highlights several issues that complicate the idealized image of Nordic society:
- The pressure for social conformity can sometimes stifle individuality and innovation.
- There are growing tensions around immigration and multiculturalism in traditionally homogeneous societies.
- High taxes and extensive state involvement in the economy raise questions about long-term economic competitiveness.
- Some countries, like Sweden, have controversial historical episodes that contradict their progressive image.
- The Nordic model faces challenges from globalization, aging populations, and changing social norms.
Cultural Distinctiveness
One of the key takeaways from Booth's exploration is how distinct each Nordic country is, despite their similarities. From Iceland's blend of Viking heritage and American influence to Finland's unique language and cultural traits, each nation has its own character shaped by history, geography, and cultural evolution.
Lessons for the World
While the Nordic model may not be directly transferable to other cultures, it offers valuable insights:
- The importance of social trust in building effective institutions
- The benefits of investing in education and human capital
- The possibility of balancing economic prosperity with strong social safety nets
- The value of gender equality in creating dynamic, productive societies
- The role of cultural factors like hygge in fostering social cohesion and well-being
A More Nuanced Understanding
Ultimately, "The Almost Nearly Perfect People" encourages readers to move beyond simplistic stereotypes about Scandinavia. These countries are neither flawless utopias nor failing socialist experiments. They are complex, evolving societies with their own strengths, weaknesses, and internal debates.
By presenting a more realistic and multifaceted view of Nordic culture, Booth's book allows for a richer understanding of these fascinating countries. It invites us to appreciate their achievements while also recognizing their struggles and contradictions. In doing so, it offers valuable perspectives on the ongoing global conversation about how to build fair, prosperous, and sustainable societies in the 21st century.
The Nordic countries may not be perfect, but their successes, failures, and ongoing experiments in social organization provide a wealth of lessons for the rest of the world. As we grapple with challenges like inequality, climate change, and social cohesion, the Scandinavian experience - in all its complexity - remains a valuable reference point for policymakers and citizens alike.