Introduction
In "White Trash: The 400-Year Untold History of Class in America," author Nancy Isenberg delves into the often-overlooked story of poor white Americans. This book challenges the notion of America as a classless society, revealing a long history of social stratification that has shaped the nation since its colonial beginnings.
Isenberg's work is particularly relevant in the wake of the 2016 US presidential election, which brought renewed attention to the voting behavior of white Americans. The book provides a historical context for understanding the so-called "white trash" phenomenon, tracing its roots back to the early days of American colonization and following its evolution through to the present day.
The Origins of American Class Stratification
England's Solution to Poverty
In the 1600s, America presented a unique opportunity for England's ruling class. The vast, seemingly empty landmass of North America appeared to be a perfect solution for two pressing issues: getting rid of the poor and turning a profit. The English viewed the native inhabitants as "uncivilized" and therefore not legitimate custodians of the land, making it free for the taking in their eyes.
As a result, America became a dumping ground for England's undesirables - criminals, orphans, and the impoverished. These individuals were tasked with building up the first English colonies in America. This practice laid the foundation for a class-based society in the New World, effectively transplanting and intensifying the inequalities already present in English society.
Class Divisions in the Colonies
The class system quickly took root in both the Southern and Northern colonies, albeit in different ways:
Virginia: As the first Southern colony, Virginia's economy was driven by tobacco cultivation. This crop required large tracts of land, which only the wealthy could afford, and a substantial labor force. Poor immigrants who arrived in Virginia were often forced to work in tobacco fields to pay off their passage to America, creating a clear divide between landowners and laborers.
New England: Despite its reputation for religious community, New England society was far from egalitarian. Puritan doctrine established a rigid social hierarchy, with poor outsiders - both black slaves and white servants - at the bottom of the social ladder.
Gender Inequality and "Good Breeding"
Gender inequality was also a significant factor in early American society. The concepts of fertility and "good breeding" were considered crucial for a prosperous nation. This led to women being viewed in similar terms as land - both required capable men to manage them for the economy and population to grow.
To protect the notion of good breeding, inter-class marriage was strongly discouraged. The upper classes feared that allowing reproduction between different social strata would lead to a decline in their superior pedigree.
The Founding Fathers and Class
Benjamin Franklin's Vision
Even the founding fathers, despite their progressive ideals, couldn't entirely shake off the classist thinking of their time. Benjamin Franklin, for instance, believed in an equal society but still saw advantages in social stratification.
Franklin proposed that a wider dispersal of people across the land would reduce class conflict by ensuring each person had their own property, far enough from others to prevent resource disputes. While this idea seems egalitarian on the surface, it didn't account for unfree laborers and was designed to protect the elites from those at the bottom of society.
Franklin believed that creating a large middle class would provide social stability, as those in the middle would be content with their position above the laborers.
Thomas Jefferson's Perspective
Thomas Jefferson, another proponent of egalitarianism, was nevertheless influenced by his background as a member of the Virginian elite. This led him to misunderstand the real struggles of the lower classes, attributing their problems to differences in land quality and geography rather than recognizing the systemic barriers that prevented social mobility.
Jefferson's attempts at reform often fell short. For example, his early proposal to grant 50 acres to each landless man was ultimately dropped from the State Constitution. He also held the belief that success was more a result of genetic factors than social conditions, imagining that over time, breeding and natural selection would create an "accidental aristocracy" of talent.
Westward Expansion and the Poor White Pioneers
The Struggle of Settlers
As pioneers began to settle beyond the Western frontier in the nineteenth century, the theories of the founding fathers were put to the test. Millions of poor Americans migrated to what are now Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Missouri, hoping to create better lives for themselves. However, contrary to Jefferson's vision, they often remained poor and were forced to squat on disputed properties illegally.
The lack of essential infrastructure in the West made trade difficult to organize, forcing settlers to live self-sufficiently. They typically resided in small, nomadic dwellings, often near Native American communities and beyond the reach of civil society.
Changing Perceptions of Squatters
Initially, the middle and upper classes viewed these squatters as vulgar, dangerous, and uncontrolled. They were known for their crude living conditions and large families, with rumors spreading about their uncivilized behavior.
However, over time, squatters began to be admired in American society. Their positive traits formed the foundation of what became known as "the American spirit." Some romanticized squatters as natural philosophers and free spirits who shunned wealth and fame. They were seen as honest, hardworking, and embodying the American love of adventure.
Political Figures Embracing the Squatter Identity
Two notable political figures embraced their "squatter identities": Andrew Jackson, the first Westerner to be elected US president, and Congressman "Davy" Crockett. Their association with the squatter lifestyle made them both highly controversial and wildly popular, reflecting the changing attitudes towards poor whites in American society.
The Civil War and Conflicting Narratives about Poor Whites
North vs. South: Diverging Social Structures
As time passed, the social structures in the North and South began to diverge significantly. In the South, slavery formed the foundation of social order, while the North prided itself on a society of free men and women.
Many Northerners objected to slavery not only on moral grounds but also because it kept white laborers poor and marginalized. The presence of unpaid slave labor kept white laborers' salaries down. However, the Southern elites defended the presence of poor whites as evidence of their own natural superiority rather than as a consequence of the unfair system of slavery.
The Cavalier Myth
The Southern elites propagated the idea that they were descendants of the English aristocratic Cavaliers, while the poor whites at the bottom were descendants of the servants and convicts who came to the American colonies. This narrative served to justify the existing social hierarchy.
Civil War Rhetoric
When the American Civil War erupted, both the Southern Confederacy and the Northern Union attacked each other's stance on class and race. The Confederacy defended slavery as a natural division of labor and a stabilizing force in society. They accused the North of undermining this order by assigning low-skilled jobs to both blacks and whites.
To unite Southerners against the North, the idea of the Cavaliers was expanded to encompass all Southerners, rich and poor. The Northerners were now labeled as the "mudsills" of society's lowest tiers.
Class Tensions in the Confederacy
Despite attempts to create unity, the Confederacy continued to struggle with class tensions. Poor white Southerners worked in appalling conditions to support the upper class. As slaves performed most manual labor jobs, marginalized white people struggled to find work. This led to revolts among the poor white class, who raged against food shortages. Desertion rates in the Confederate army were high.
The Union's Approach
In contrast, leaders of the Union wore their "mudsill" badge with pride and encouraged soldiers to do the same. Their fighters were convinced of their egalitarian mission, which helped maintain high morale throughout the war.
Post-Civil War: The Rise of Eugenics
A New Form of Discrimination
The end of the Civil War did not mark the end of classism and racism in America. Instead, these prejudices were disguised under a new ideology: eugenics. This pseudo-scientific theory revolved around the notion of "improving" the genetic quality of the human population. Such ideas found fertile ground in American society, with its historical fixation on lineage and "good breeding."
Influential Supporters
Several influential individuals promoted eugenicist ideas. President Theodore Roosevelt, for instance, was a vocal eugenicist. During his presidency in the early twentieth century, Roosevelt promoted the idea that it was the duty of women to raise generations of healthy and disciplined children. He recommended that Anglo-American women from good backgrounds should have up to six children for the sake of expanding the American race.
Scientific Racism and Classism
By viewing "good breeding" through the lens of evolutionary biology, Americans found a convenient way to normalize structural classism and racism. Questionable evidence was used to support discriminatory policies:
- IQ tests that merely reflected pre-existing literacy gaps
- Medical research on diseases such as hookworm and pellagra, which were actually caused by malnutrition but were attributed to genetic inferiority
Social and Legal Impact
The eugenics movement had a powerful impact on several facets of civil law:
- Marriage between different races and classes often led to the ostracization of couples
- Young, lower-class white women were sometimes sterilized
- Up until 1931, 27 states upheld sterilization laws, which detailed the many categories of people that were to be sterilized
Academics, scientists, doctors, journalists, and legislators embraced eugenics, drawing analogies between human and animal breeding. Some extreme eugenicists even believed that individuals did not have the right to marry or reproduce according to their own free will.
The Great Depression: Challenging the Narrative
Economic Collapse and Social Upheaval
The economic boom of the early twentieth century came to a crashing halt with the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s. This economic catastrophe left millions of workers unemployed, creating a spiral of downward mobility that brought many middle-class Americans down to "white trash" status.
By 1932, 20 percent of the American workforce was jobless, with many others living in fear of losing their jobs. Caravan shanty towns, inhabited by migrating farmers who had lost their land, began to appear along California highways. The dire situation eventually led to large-scale government intervention.
Roosevelt's New Deal
President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated a series of new policies to combat the Depression. In doing so, he made it clear that the social ills suffered by the lower classes could be improved with reform. This approach challenged the long-held belief that poverty was an inherent trait of certain individuals or groups.
Key initiatives included:
The Resettlement Administration: This public agency was established to help the poor and unemployed rebuild their lives. For the first time, the psychological burden of poverty was taken into account.
The Tennessee Valley Authority: This local development agency helped recover eroded land, build dams, and create new towns, allowing entire regions to get back on their feet.
The success of these agencies demonstrated that the struggles of the lower classes could be alleviated if the state invested in solutions.
Scientific Evidence Challenging Prejudice
Soon, scientific evidence emerged that proved poor people couldn't be blamed for their poverty. Sociologist H. Odum led the way with his research, which revealed that the prejudice of the wealthy against "white trash" was driven by their desire to blame their own problems on the poor.
Odum's studies showed that underdevelopment in the South could be reversed if the region's poor were supplied with the necessary resources, training, and opportunities to live productive, stable lives. This research challenged the long-held belief in genetic inferiority and highlighted the importance of environmental factors in determining social outcomes.
The Rise of White Trash Culture in Mainstream America
Elvis Presley: A Cultural Turning Point
In the latter half of the twentieth century, America fell in love with Elvis Presley, a hillbilly from Tupelo, Mississippi. Born in a simple "shotgun shack," a tiny narrow house synonymous with the poor Americans of the South, Elvis's nationwide popularity reflected a shift in attitudes toward "white trash."
For the first time, this pejorative label could be worn with pride, as the nation came to recognize the positive cultural tropes associated with white trash. This change was tied to the rise of identity politics in the 1950s and 1960s, which seemed to replace class distinctions as people of certain ethnic and social backgrounds began to band together.
The Search for Authenticity
Frustration with white middle-class suburban blandness drove many Americans to search for authenticity. They began reaching for redneck culture, which was in turn commodified and consumed with astonishing success. NASCAR racing is a prime example of this phenomenon. Born out of the redneck bootlegger's need for fast cars to escape police, the race became a national sensation by wearing its outlaw past with pride.
Negative Portrayals and Stereotypes
Unfortunately, not all commercial portrayals of white trash culture were positive. Countless TV shows, from "The Beverly Hillbillies" to "The Andy Griffith Show," made the white poor laughable. The rise in identity politics went hand-in-hand with conservative criticism of the welfare system, which Republicans viewed as breeding weak people.
An unsympathetic middle class blamed white trash for various social ills, including inner-city violence, economic stagnation, and loose sexual morals. The "hillbilly ghettos" of poor white Southerners who'd moved north to cities such as Baltimore, Chicago, and Cincinnati were used as examples of the negative impact of the white poor.
Bill Clinton: The Epitome of Poor White America
From the 1990s onward, Southern white trash culture found itself at the center of attention in America, capturing historical class tensions and new social anxieties. For this generation, Bill Clinton was the epitome of the poor white American. With his rags-to-riches story, trailer-trash roots, sexual misdeeds, and Elvis-like allure, he infuriated his conservative opponents while captivating many Americans.
Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of White Trash in American Culture
Nancy Isenberg's "White Trash" reveals that America has been a classist society since its early colonial days. The white poor have endured discriminatory biological determinism and deep-seated prejudice from the upper classes throughout the nation's history. However, they have also gained an important cultural role in shaping the American identity.
From the Western squatter to the Northern "mudsill" of the Civil War, to the trailer trash of the late twentieth century, the white lower classes have captured the hearts of the nation as an embodiment of the American spirit. Their story is one of resilience, struggle, and cultural significance that has been both celebrated and derided throughout American history.
The book challenges readers to reconsider their understanding of American society and its class dynamics. By tracing the history of poor whites in America, Isenberg exposes the myth of a classless society and reveals the complex interplay of race, class, and culture that has shaped the nation.
As America continues to grapple with issues of inequality and social mobility, "White Trash" provides valuable historical context for understanding contemporary debates about class and identity. It reminds us that the struggles of the white poor are not a recent phenomenon but have been a constant thread in the fabric of American society since its inception.
Ultimately, Isenberg's work invites readers to reflect on the ongoing impact of class divisions in America and to consider how the legacy of "white trash" continues to influence social, cultural, and political dynamics in the present day. By bringing this often-overlooked history to light, "White Trash" contributes to a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of American identity and the forces that have shaped it over the past four centuries.