Introduction
Tom Standage's "A History of the World in 6 Glasses" takes readers on a fascinating journey through human history, viewed through the lens of six beverages that have shaped our world. From the discovery of beer in ancient Mesopotamia to the global dominance of Coca-Cola in the 20th century, this book explores how our favorite drinks have influenced the course of civilization.
Beer: The Dawn of Human History
The Accidental Discovery
Beer, the first of our six influential beverages, wasn't invented but discovered. Around 10,000 BC, as the Ice Age was ending, people in the Fertile Crescent (modern-day Middle East and Egypt) began producing wild cereal grains in abundance. They soon found that when these grains were soaked in water, the starch converted to malt. When this malted grain was used to make gruel and left to ferment for a few days, it turned into an intoxicating and slightly fizzy drink. This accidental discovery would change the course of human history.
From Nomads to Settlers
The desire to produce more beer played a crucial role in the transition from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle to settled agricultural communities. As people developed a taste for beer and bread, they needed a constant supply of grain. This led to the realization that stored cereal grains could be consumed over several months or even years. The benefits of storage encouraged people to stay near their grain reserves, gradually leading to the development of permanent settlements.
The Birth of Agriculture
The increasing demand for grain-based products like beer and bread eventually led to the development of agriculture. People began to deliberately plant and cultivate grains as their reliance on these foods grew. This shift from foraging to farming marked a significant turning point in human history, allowing for larger, more complex societies to emerge.
Beer in Daily Life
As early settlements grew into larger civilizations, beer became an integral part of daily life. It was seen as a symbol of civilized existence, and sharing it became a sign of hospitality. Beer was even used in religious and state ceremonies, further cementing its importance in society.
The First Great Work of Literature
The significance of beer in ancient civilizations is evident in the Epic of Gilgamesh, widely regarded as the first great work of literature in human history. In this Mesopotamian epic, beer is described as the drink of the "civilized man," highlighting its cultural importance.
Wine: The Drink of Elites
A Symbol of Prestige
Unlike beer, which was widely available, wine was initially a rare and expensive commodity. In the ancient world, it was primarily accessible to wealthy elites due to its limited availability and high transportation costs. This exclusivity made wine a powerful symbol of prestige and social status.
The Assyrian Empire
The Assyrian Empire provides a clear example of wine's status as a luxury item. In 870 BC, Assyrian King Ashurnasirpal held a massive feast for the empire's elite, showcasing his power by serving wine imported from faraway lands. This event underscored the prestige associated with wine consumption and the ability to procure it from distant regions.
Ancient Greece: Wine and Culture
Wine played a crucial role in shaping Ancient Greek society and culture. The Greeks developed more affordable wine production methods, making it the preferred drink among the intellectual elite. Wine became an essential part of symposiums, flowing freely at gatherings centered around poetry, art, and intellectual discourse.
Greek Cultural Expansion
The Greeks proudly exported their wine and wine culture throughout the Mediterranean, contributing to their expanding influence around the world. Foreign cultures began to crave not only Greek wine but also other aspects of Greek culture, such as the beautiful jars and amphorae used for wine storage.
Ancient Rome: Wine and Social Hierarchy
When Rome replaced Greece as the dominant power in the Mediterranean region in the second century BC, they imported Greek grape vines into Italy, shifting the center of the wine trade. In Roman society, both wealthy elites and slaves enjoyed wine, but a person's social class and status were marked by the quality of wine they drank. The finest wines, such as Falernian from Campania, were reserved for the elite and are still considered among the world's best wines today.
Spirits: The Age of Exploration
The Invention of Distillation
The development of distillation in the Arab world marked another milestone in the history of alcoholic beverages. While the new spirits didn't gain much traction in the Middle East due to religious reasons, they soon took hold in Europe.
Medicinal Uses in Europe
Europeans initially believed that distilled wine had healing powers. Michael Salernus, an Italian alchemist, experimented with distillation after reading about the process in Arab texts from the twelfth century. Although the resulting spirit wasn't particularly pleasant, it was soon regarded as a cure for various ailments, from heart diseases to paralysis.
Spirits and European Imperialism
The popularity of spirits, particularly rum, played a significant role in European imperialism. The desire to obtain more sugar, used in rum production, drove European nations to establish sugar plantations on Caribbean islands after colonizing them.
Rum as Currency
In the Caribbean, sugar and rum became so important that rum itself became a form of currency. In some cases, it was even used to purchase slaves, highlighting the dark side of the spirits trade.
The American Revolution
Distilled spirits like rum went on to profoundly impact the course of human history. Rum played a part in the American fight for independence, particularly with the passage of the Molasses Act in 1733. This act placed a tax on molasses imported from non-British colonies, which was used to make rum.
American colonists defied this law by continuing to smuggle in French molasses, which was of higher quality. This early act of defiance against British law eventually extended to other products, like tea, and culminated in the American Revolutionary War.
Coffee: The Age of Reason
A New Alternative to Alcohol
In the Middle Ages, a new game-changing drink emerged: coffee. While it first gained popularity in the Arab world, by the seventeenth century, demand began to grow across Europe as well.
Before coffee became widespread, Europeans commonly drank beer or wine throughout the day, as most drinking water was contaminated. Coffee, however, was as safe as alcohol because it was made with boiling water. It soon became the preferred drink among those who wanted to avoid being intoxicated all day, such as scientists, merchants, clerks, and other intellectuals.
The Rise of Coffeehouses
Coffeehouses began to replace taverns as centers of academic and political debate. The first English coffeehouses emerged in the mid-seventeenth century, offering a well-lit and comfortably furnished alternative to gloomy taverns. These establishments attracted well-to-do customers like merchants, academics, and political thinkers, all of whom appreciated the intellectual environment.
Political Debates and Revolutions
Coffeehouses quickly became hotspots for political debate. For instance, supporters of the exiled Charles II met in coffeehouses to discuss his return to the throne in 1660. The debates and alliances formed in these establishments played a crucial role in the restoration of the monarchy and the end of Oliver Cromwell's reign.
Interestingly, King Charles II distrusted coffeehouses despite their role in his return from exile. He was concerned about the free speech that flourished within them and even attempted to shut them down.
Coffeehouses Across Europe
The coffeehouse phenomenon spread to other parts of Europe, particularly Paris and Amsterdam. These establishments allowed people to meet, exchange news and gossip, and engage in intellectual discourse. In fact, the debates and heated conversations in Parisian coffeehouses contributed so significantly to the French Revolution that some historians have credited them with the eventual fall of the monarchy.
Tea: The British Empire
Tea's Journey to Europe
While tea drinking is now a well-known English tradition, the British weren't the first to introduce it to Europe. Tea came to the continent in the seventeenth century on trading ships from China.
Initially, China had resisted trade with Europe, feeling they didn't need European goods. However, this changed in the mid-sixteenth century when China began seeking more silver and gold. They developed a trading relationship with Portugal, exchanging silk and porcelain, and later expanded their trade to other European nations.
Dutch Introduction and British Adoption
The Dutch were the first to import tea to Europe, where it was initially regarded as a novelty and luxury item, more expensive than coffee. It was primarily used for medicinal purposes at first.
However, tea quickly became wildly popular in Britain. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, only about six tons of tea were imported each year. By the end of the century, this figure had risen to 11,000 tons – not counting the vast quantities smuggled in illegally, which would have nearly doubled that amount.
Social and Cultural Impact
Tea's popularity in Britain was partly due to social reasons. It was considered fashionable among royalty and the upper classes. As it became more affordable, the lower classes adopted it too, in an effort to appear more sophisticated.
Tea houses and tea gardens soon sprang up throughout the country. They were especially popular with women, as women could buy tea over the counter, whereas most coffeehouses forbade women from even entering.
Tea and the Industrial Revolution
By the eighteenth century, tea was gaining ground over coffee in industrial workplaces like factories, as the British Empire continued to promote it. The rise of tea coincided with – and perhaps even drove – the Industrial Revolution.
Like coffee, tea helped keep workers awake. But it had an additional benefit: its antibacterial properties reduced waterborne diseases. This allowed industrial workers to sleep in crowded living spaces without being as vulnerable to the spread of disease. As a result, more people could join the workforce, leading to more factories and increased production.
Tea also had positive effects on public health. Nursing mothers produced healthier milk thanks to tea, which lowered infant mortality rates and grew the working class population even more.
Industrial Growth and Tea Production
The tea industry itself spurred industrial growth. As it became a status symbol and an important part of life for all social classes, British manufacturers sought innovative ways to boost production to meet increasing demand. The Wedgwood Company, for instance, became a pioneer in the mass production of tea sets during this era.
The East India Company and Global Power
Around the same time, tea was making the East India Company one of the most powerful companies in the world. Charged with supplying tea to Britain, the company's revenues exceeded even those of the British government itself.
This economic power translated into significant political influence. The East India Company had enough clout to influence tax policies, as evidenced by the Tea Act of 1773. This act allowed the company to export tea to the American colonies tax-free, forcing local merchants to pay import duties and raising prices for American consumers.
The American Revolution
The tea tax was part of a series of unfair tax policies imposed on the American colonies, which eventually led to protests and boycotts. The most famous of these protests was the Boston Tea Party, where colonists dumped British tea into Boston Harbor. These events contributed to the growing tensions that ultimately resulted in the American Revolutionary War and the United States' fight for independence.
Coca-Cola: The Rise of America
The Birth of Soda
About a century after tea's rise to prominence, another groundbreaking drink emerged, this time in the United States: soda. The British scientist and clergyman Joseph Priestley was the first to invent carbonized soda after discovering the process of dissolving gas into water.
Initially, people used Priestley's carbonated drink for medicinal purposes, as it was similar to natural spring water. In the United States, however, people started drinking it for its taste.
The Evolution of Soda
Soda soon became widely regarded as a refreshing drink, and its popularity grew even more after the introduction of the bottling process, developed in 1805 by Benjamin Silliman, a chemistry professor at Yale University. In 1909, a bottled soda seller named Joseph Hawkins figured out how to use fountains to dispense soda directly to customers, further increasing its accessibility.
Americans also improved the taste of soda by adding fruit syrups to the drink. This innovation set the stage for the creation of the most famous soda of all: Coca-Cola.
The Invention of Coca-Cola
John Pemberton, a pharmacist from Georgia, invented Coca-Cola by experimenting with coca, an ingredient he'd read about in medical journals. He initially created a drink called French Wine Coca by infusing the mixture with wine. However, as the Prohibition movement gained momentum, he began producing non-alcoholic versions, eventually developing the drink that would become famous worldwide.
Marketing and Early Success
While Pemberton initially advertised Coca-Cola as a tonic, it quickly became more popular as a refreshment, thanks in large part to his shrewd marketing skills. He chose the name "Coca-Cola" because he knew the two C's would look good on advertisements. Pemberton wanted Coca-Cola to be everywhere; free samples, posters, and banners on soda fountains quickly increased public awareness of his sweet, fizzy drink.
His strategy was a great success. In 1887, sales of Coca-Cola syrup jumped to 200 gallons a month in Atlanta alone. Just eight years later, annual sales exceeded 76,000 gallons.
Coca-Cola Goes Global
Coca-Cola began its international journey when the United States abandoned its policy of isolationism. Prior to World War II, the Coca-Cola company, much like the American government, had little interest in expanding abroad.
After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, however, American troops were dispatched all over the globe – and Coca-Cola went with them. Servicemen came to associate Coca-Cola with patriotism and American identity. The company saw an excellent marketing opportunity and issued an order that "every man in uniform gets a bottle of Coca-Cola for five cents, wherever he is."
To meet the growing demands of servicemen, Coca-Cola began building bottling plants in other countries, particularly in strategic regions like North Africa. After the war, the operations of these plants were turned over to locals, and the drink became a global favorite.
Coca-Cola in the Cold War
In the post-war period, Coca-Cola took on new significance in global politics. During the Cold War, anti-American groups, particularly Communists, saw the drink as a symbol of American capitalism and imperialism. French Communists even tried to get it banned, claiming it was poisonous.
Interestingly, one Soviet General named Georgy Zhukov adored Coca-Cola but was wary of being associated with something so American. He asked if it could be made clear so it would look like vodka, highlighting the complex relationship between politics and consumer goods during this era.
Coca-Cola and Middle Eastern Politics
Coca-Cola even influenced Middle Eastern politics. In the 1960s, Israel came to believe that Coca-Cola was deliberately staying out of the country so as not to offend the potentially larger Arab market. Pro-Israeli groups in the United States began considering a boycott, prompting the company to agree to license a bottling franchise in Tel Aviv. This decision, in turn, provoked an Arab boycott, which only ended in the 1980s.
Conclusion: The Power of Beverages in Shaping History
Tom Standage's "A History of the World in 6 Glasses" demonstrates how seemingly simple beverages have played crucial roles in shaping human civilization. From beer's influence on the development of agriculture and settled societies to Coca-Cola's impact on global politics in the 20th century, these drinks have been far more than just refreshments.
Beer helped transition humanity from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled agriculturalists, laying the foundation for complex societies. Wine became a symbol of social status and sophistication, influencing trade and cultural exchange in the ancient world. Spirits, particularly rum, fueled European imperialism and played a role in the American Revolution.
Coffee fostered intellectual discourse and political debate, contributing to significant events like the Restoration in England and the French Revolution. Tea drove the expansion of the British Empire and played a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution, while also becoming a flashpoint in the American struggle for independence.
Finally, Coca-Cola emerged as a symbol of American culture and capitalism, spreading across the globe alongside American influence in the 20th century. Its role in World War II and the subsequent Cold War demonstrates how a simple soft drink can become intertwined with global politics and cultural identity.
These six beverages – beer, wine, spirits, coffee, tea, and Coca-Cola – have each left an indelible mark on human history. They have influenced social structures, driven economic changes, sparked revolutions, and shaped cultural identities. By examining history through the lens of these drinks, we gain a unique perspective on the forces that have shaped our world.
As we look to the future, it's clear that beverages will continue to play important roles in our societies. Whether it's the rise of new energy drinks, the growing popularity of bottled water, or the development of lab-grown alternatives, the drinks we consume will undoubtedly continue to reflect and influence our changing world.
Standage's book reminds us that the story of human civilization is not just about wars, politics, and great leaders. It's also about the everyday items we consume – including the beverages we drink. By understanding the history of these drinks, we gain valuable insights into the complex tapestry of human culture, economics, and social development. The next time you enjoy a cup of coffee, a glass of wine, or a can of Coca-Cola, remember that you're not just quenching your thirst – you're participating in a tradition that has shaped the course of human history.