How Emotions Are Made Summary

What if emotions weren't universal forces within us but instead, creations of our brain shaped by individual experiences and culture?

1. Emotions Are Not Hardwired

Our default belief is that emotions spontaneously emerge as reflexes. This "classical view" maintains emotions are universal, embedded in our genetics, and consistent across individuals and cultures. But this idea has ancient roots and persists despite modern scientific scrutiny.

For centuries, philosophers like Descartes and Darwin reinforced the notion of essentialism, the idea that each human emotion has a unique essence. Modern psychology textbooks echo this perspective, claiming we have fixed "anger neurons" or "sadness neurons." Popular media, too, feeds into this belief by portraying emotions as automatic reactions.

But reality challenges this narrative. Neuroscience suggests emotions lack inherent "neural fingerprints." For example, anger doesn’t always result in a scowl, nor does sadness always involve tears. Emotional expressions vary based on individual and cultural contexts.

Examples

• Aristotle and Darwin described emotions as universal and biologically innate.
• The Pixar movie Inside Out represents emotions as fixed characters within our minds.
• Modern psychology textbooks continue to promote this classical perspective.

2. The Classical View Breaks Down Under Scientific Research

Modern brain research exposes cracks in the classical view of emotions. Contrary to the idea of set expressions for each emotion, science finds that emotional responses are diverse and situation-dependent.

Analysis of brain activity from various imaging studies reveals no region solely dedicated to any one emotion. Instead, the same brain areas activate for numerous thoughts and actions, emotional or not. This variability contradicts the idea of predictable emotional "fingerprints."

Despite this evidence, society and industries invest in emotion-recognition technology based on flawed assumptions. Facial recognition software and systems like SPOT (Screening Passengers by Observation Techniques) have wasted millions, all without accurately predicting or identifying human emotions.

Examples

• Brain imaging from 1990-2011 showed shared neural activity across emotions.
• Smiling doesn’t always imply happiness, illustrating weak links between expressions and feelings.
• SPOT’s failure cost American taxpayers $900 million.

3. Emotions Are Constructed, Not Pre-Programmed

A new theory of "constructed emotion" posits emotions are not preset reflexes but are synthesized dynamically in the brain. Each emotion is a product of experience and sensory input.

The brain constructs emotions by predicting and adjusting its responses based on past experiences. For instance, anger doesn't manifest in a single "universal" way. You may react with a shout one day and a smirk another, depending on circumstances and personal history.

This theory aligns with Darwin’s understanding of evolution. Just as species adapt and change over time, our emotional responses adapt, shaped by individual and environmental factors.

Examples

• You might laugh angrily remembering an insult days later but shout when it first occurs.
• Past experiences of fear (e.g., encountering a snake) guide responses to similar threats.
• Darwin dismantled fixed species concepts, much like this theory challenges fixed emotions.

4. The Brain’s Predictive System Shapes Emotions

Our brain continuously predicts and interprets sensory experiences, a process called interoception. This system manages both emotions and bodily functions, influencing how we feel.

Interoception governs bodily sensations, like pleasure from sun warmth or discomfort from illness. These sensations guide emotional interpretations but are not emotions themselves. Instead, they act as ingredients for emotions, combined uniquely depending on context.

Even unconscious systems, like muscle memory while driving, stem from this predictive mechanism. Similarly, emotions emerge when the brain makes predictions about internal states and external circumstances.

Examples

• A stomachache feels unpleasant but isn’t necessarily sadness—context adds meaning.
• Driving on autopilot exemplifies interoception’s role in guiding efficient predictions.
• Babies exhibit displeasure or agitation but lack fully formed emotions.

5. Your "Body Budget" Affects Emotional Experiences

The brain uses interoception to regulate the body budget, which manages resources like energy, glucose, and heart rate. An imbalanced body budget often triggers emotional responses.

Emotion emerges when the brain interprets bodily signals related to resource use. Stressful moments, whether caused by physical exertion or troubling thoughts, drain resources and heighten emotional intensity. For instance, a fear response might stem from physical agitation rather than an actual threat.

Even imagination influences the body budget. Anticipating a problem at work can drain energy reserves as if you were physically confronting the issue. Replenishing resources—through rest and nourishment—helps recalibrate emotions.

Examples

• Physical sensations like hunger can heighten irritability.
• Jogging speeds up heart activity, interpreting this as uplifting or exhausting depends on context.
• Imagining stressful interactions impacts energy much like engaging in real ones.

6. Emotion Concepts Are Shaped by Culture

What constitutes an emotion is largely defined by cultural norms. The terms and gestures we associate with feelings are social constructs that vary widely across societies.

Take "sadness." In Tahitian culture, there is no specific word for this emotion. Instead, they describe a feeling resembling flu-like fatigue. Similarly, smiling wasn’t always linked to happiness. Ancient Greeks and Romans didn’t associate smiling with joy or even have a word for smile.

These shifts illustrate how society organizes experiences through agreed-upon concepts. Much like how a cupcake and muffin are culturally distinguished despite their similarity, emotions are named and experienced in ways specific to each culture.

Examples

• Tahitians describe sadness as "flu fatigue" instead of melancholy.
• Smiling as a sign of happiness only gained popularity with modern dentistry.
• English adopted "Schadenfreude" to describe joy in others’ misfortunes.

7. Emotional Learning Starts in Childhood

Emotions are taught and learned over time, beginning in early childhood. Parents connect physical reactions, like crying, to emotional labels, teaching children how to interpret their feelings.

Over time, this learning continues as people integrate new emotional concepts into their vocabulary. For example, English speakers borrowed "Schadenfreude" to label an unspoken feeling and now experience it more readily.

As adults, understanding new emotional nuances can refine our emotional intelligence. Recognizing differences, like between distress and discomfort, strengthens emotional regulation and resilience.

Examples

• A parent saying, "Are you sad mommy left?" teaches a crying baby about sadness.
• Learning language-specific emotional vocabulary makes building connections easier.
• Distinguishing fear from anxiety helps manage both more effectively.

8. Emotions Are Tools We Build With Experience

As we grow and encounter new experiences, we refine our emotional range. By investing energy in learning, we accumulate emotional “tools” for coping and connection.

Exposure to diverse environments or languages broadens our emotional understanding, equipping us to recognize and articulate complex feelings. For example, someone who meditates may cultivate a richer awareness of contentment than they had before.

This adaptiveness highlights emotions’ constructive nature. They’re not static but evolve as we acquire new insights and contexts.

Examples

• Meditation can turn vague feelings of calm into distinct emotional states.
• Travelling abroad exposes you to new cultural emotions, expanding recognition.
• Education about mental health introduces vocabulary terms that sharpen self-reflection.

9. Rebalancing Your Body Budget Can Shift Emotions

Understanding the connection between your body’s resource levels and emotions offers practical benefits. By taking action to rebalance your body budget, you can influence emotional recoveries, like moving past sadness or anger.

Physical activities like walking or adjusting your breathing calm agitation. Similarly, rest, food, and hydration restore energy reserves, helping you handle challenges with greater emotional clarity.

Resetting your body budget is not about elimination. Instead, it equips you to face negative feelings more constructively.

Examples

• A short nap can curtail feelings of burnout at work.
• Deep-breathing exercises during a meeting may reduce feelings of confrontation.
• Eating lunch when irritable restores glucose balance, lightening mood.

Takeaways

1. Invest in distinguishing emotions: Pay attention to subtle emotional shifts in daily life, and actively learn vocabulary for emotions to expand your ability to regulate and interpret them.
2. Understand cultural emotion differences: Explore emotions from other cultures as a way to refine your emotional toolbox and gain cross-cultural empathy.
3. Manage your body budget mindfully: Prioritize rest, nutrition, and physical activity as non-negotiable tools to reset emotions.